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Plate  I. 


Plate  I.— THE   CECROPIA    MOTH. 

(See  page  195.) 


% 


,HTOM    AT' 


EDITION  IN  COLORS 


INSECT    LIFE 

AN    INTRODUCTION 
TO    NATURE-STUDY 

AND  A  GUIDE  FOR  TEACHERS, 
STUDENTS,  AND  OTHERS  INTER- 
ESTED   IN    OUT-OF-DOOR    LIFE 

By  JOHN   HENRY   COMSTOCK     /{ 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENTOMOLOGY  IN  COR- 
NELL UNIVERSITY  AND  IN  LELAND 
STANFORD    JUNIOR    UNIVERSITY     :     :     : 


WITH  FULL-PAGE  PLATES  FROM  LIFE 
REPRODUCING  INSECTS  IN  NATURAL 
COLORS,  AND  WITH  MANY  ORIGINAL 
ILLUSTRATIONS  ENGRAVED  BY  ANNA 
BOTSFORD  COMSTOCK,  MEMBER  OF 
THE     SOCIETY     OF     AMERICAN     WOOD 

ENGRAVERS    :::::::::::::: 

BOSTON  COLLEGE  LliJKAKr 
CHESTNUT  H^LL,  MASS. 

NEW   YORK 

D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY 
1901 


6til56 


Copyright,  1897,  1901, 
By  D.  APPLETON   AND   COMPANY. 


CIS 


May,  1901. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction .        i 


PART  I. 
LESSONS  IN  INSECT  LIFE. 


CHAPTER 

I. — The  parts  of  an  insect 


9 


II. — The  beginning  of  a  collection  and  a  study  of  the 

METAMORPHOSES   OF   INSECTS 22 

III. — The  CLASSIFICATION    OF    INSECTS   AND    THEIR  NEAR  RELA- 
TIVES           51 

IV. — Pond  life  .        . 87 

V. — Brook  life 144 

VI. — Orchard  life .        .  166 

VII. — Forest  life 186 

VIII. — Roadside  life 221 


PART   II. 

THE  COLLECTION  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  SPECIMENS. 

I. — The  collection  of  specimens 284 

II. — The  preservation  of  specimens    .....  294 

III. — On  labeling  specimens  and  taking  notes  .        .        .  315 

IV. — The  breeding  of  insects 326 

V. — Miscellaneous  lists .  336 


LIST   OF   PLATES 


TO    FACE 
PLATE  PAGE 

I. — The    Cecropia    Moth        ....  Frontispiece 

II.— The  Tomato-worm  Moth     ......       40 

III.— Some  Sphinx  Moths 80 

IV.— Beetles 85 

v.— A  Pond 87 

VI.— A  Brook I44 

VII. — Dandelions  and  a  Locust    ......     166 

VIII.— Forest  and  Orchard  Moths 174 

IX.— A  Forest  Aisle 188 

X. — Some  Forest  Moths 197 

XI. — Under-wing  Moths 204 

XII. — Long-horned  Beetles 215 

XIII.— Roadside  Butterflies     .         .         .         .         .         .         .221 

XIV. — Tiger-moths 239 

XV.— Swallow-tail  Butterflies        .         .    •      .         ,         .         .243 

XVI.— Butterflies 246 

XVII.— Butterflies      .* 252 

XVIII.— Caterpillars   .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ■         .328 


INSECT    LIFE 


INTRODUCTION. 

This  book  was  written  to  meet  the  demand  for 
a  work  which  will  be  an  aid  to  teachers  of  Nature 
study  in  the  public  schools,  students  in  the  higher 
schools,  and  others  interested  in  outdoor  life. 

Amons:  all  the  classes  of  animals  none  is  more 
available  for  study  than  insects.  Their  abundance 
make  it  easy  to  obtain  specimens ;  they  may  be 
found  wherever  man  can  live,  and  at  all  seasons. 
Not  only  are  insects  numerous  as  individuals,  but 
the  number  of  species  is  far  greater  than  that  of  all 
other  animals  taken  together. 

The  ease  with  which  living  insects  can  be  kept  in 
confinement,  and  the  smallness  of  the  expense  in- 
volved in  preserving  specimens,  add  greatly  to  the 
availability  of  insects  as  subjects  for  Nature  study. 
No  enterprising  teacher  need  hesitate  to  undertake 
this  study  on  account  of  lack  of  specimens  or  of 
apparatus ;  with  a  little  encouragement  the  pupils 
will  furnish  these,  and  the  teacher  need  not  trouble 
the  school  board  with  requests  for  an  appropriation. 

Although  at  present  most  adults  have  been  taught 
to  shun  insects,  most  children  are  easily  interested  in 
them.    The  wonderful  transformations  of  insects,  their 


2  INSECT  LIFE. 

beauty,  and  the  high  development  of  their  instinctive 
powers  render  them  attractive  subjects  of  study. 
Any  one  can  find  out  something  new  regarding  in- 
sect architecture — the  ways  in  which  these  creatures 
build  nests  for  themselves  or  for  their  young ;  it  is 
easy  to  observe  remarkable  feats  of  engineering, 
examples  of  foresight,  wonderful  industry,  unremit- 
ting care  of  young,  tragedies,  and  even  war  and 
slavery. 

Insects  are  no  longer  thought  to  be  unworthy  of 
serious  consideration.  We  have  learned  that  all  life 
is  linked  together  in  such  a  way  that  no  part  of  the 
chain  is  unimportant.  Frequently  upon  the  action 
of  some  of  these  minute  beings  depends  the  material 
success  or  failure  of  a  large  section  of  our  country. 

But  insects  are  of  interest  to  us  for  other  reasons 
than  the  influence  they  may  have  upon  our  material 
welfare ;  the  study  of  them  is  a  fruitful  field  for  in- 
tellectual growth.  It  is  not  a  small  matter  to  be  able 
to  view  intelligently  the  facts  presented  by  the  insect 
world,  to  know  something  of  what  is  going  on  around 
us;  and  so  rich  is  this  field  that  no  one  gains  more 
than  a  mere  smattering  concerning  it. 

We  know  as  yet  comparatively  little  about  the 
minute  structure  of  insects  ;  the  transformations  and 
habits  of  the  greater  number  of  species  have  not 
been  studied ;  and  the  blood  relationship  of  the 
various  groups  of  insects  is  very  imperfectly  under- 
stood. If,  therefore,  one  would  learn  something  of 
the  action  of  the  laws  that  govern  the  life  and  de- 
velopment of  organized  beings,  and  at  the  same  time 
experience  the  pleasure  derived  from  original  inves- 
tigation, he  can  not  find  a  better  field  than  is  offered 


INTRODUCTION.  3 

by  the  study  of  insects.  But  it  is  not  necessary  that 
one  should  have  the  tastes  and  leisure  required  for 
careful  scientific  investigation  in  order  to  profit  by 
this  study.  It  can  be  made  a  recreation,  a  source  of 
entertainment  when  we  are  tired,  and  a  pleasant 
occupation  for  our  thoughts  when  we  walk. 

The  desire  to  know  more  of  the  creatures  about 
us  is  growing  rapidly ;  Nature  study  is  being  intro- 
duced generally  in  schools  of  all  grades,  and  every- 
where lovers  of  out-of-door  life  are  learning  to  ex- 
perience the  pleasure  of  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  their  surroundings.  It  is  hoped  that  this  will  be 
made  easier  by  this  book.  Its  chief  object  is  to  serve 
as  a  guide  for  those  who  wish  to  acquire  a  knowledge 
of  insects  from  a  study  of  the  insects  themselves ;  it 
is  intended  to  lie  open  before  the  observer  while  the 
subject  of  study  is  examined. 

The  needs  of  the  beginner  in  the  study  of  insects, 
be  he  old  or  young,  have  been  kept  constantly  in 
mind.  The  teacher  of  children  who  is  preparing  a 
lesson,  the  youth  who  is  studying  by  himself,  and 
the  adult  who  adds  to  the  pleasure  of  his  outing  by 
learning  something  new  to  him — all  need  to  approach 
Nature  by  the  same  path.  For  this  reason  an  elemen- 
tary, didactic  form  of  treatm.ent  has  been  adopted, 
although  the  book  is  intended  for  adults  as  well  as 
for  younger  pupils. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  teacher  will  take  a 
class  through  the  book  from  beginning  to  end ;  for 
Nature  study  to  be  most  successful  must  be  varied  : 
each  locality  and  each  season  will  afford  different 
subjects  for  study. 

With  young  pupils  it  is  best  to  begin  with  obser- 


4  INSECT    LIFE. 

vations  on  living  insects.  When  practicable,  excur- 
sions into  the  fields  should  be  made  for  this  purpose. 
Suggestions  as  to  what  insects  are  most  likely  to  be 
found  in  different  localities  are  given  in  the  chapters 
on  Pond  Life,  Brook  Life,  Orchard  Life,  Forest  Life, 
and  Roadside  Life. 

But  in  most  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the 
observations  in  the  schoolroom.  For  this  a  breed- 
ing cage  or  an  aquarium  will  be  needed.  Directions 
for  making  these  are  given   in   Chapter  IV,  pages 

326-335- 

At  first  an  aquarium  will  be  found  more  useful 
than  a  breeding  cage,  for  the  constant  movement  in 
a  well-stocked  aquarium  is  sure  to  excite  interest. 
If  the  pupils  are  furnished  with  an  insect  net  (see 
page  285),  they  can  keep  the  aquarium  supplied  with 
living  insects.  In  the  chapters  on  Pond  Life  and  on 
Brook  Life  the  more  common  aquatic  insects  are 
described  and  directions  are  given  for  their  study. 

During  the  winter,  cocoons  of  the  giant  silkworms 
can  be  collected  (see  pages  188-197)  and  kept  till  the 
adult  moths  emerge,  affording  good  material  for  les- 
sons on  the  transformations  of  insects.  At  the  same 
time,  and  in  early  spring,  the  eggs  of  the  apple-tree 
tent  caterpillar  can  be  found  on  apple  trees  and  on 
wild  cherry,  and  later  the  growth  and  transforma- 
tions of  the  insect  observed  (see  pages  168-171). 

At  an  early  period  in  the  course,  a  home-made 
breeding  cage  (see  page  327)  should  be  provided  ; 
and  during  the  summer  months  it  will  be  easy  to 
keep  it  stocked  with  some  of  the  insects  described  in 
the  chapters  on  Orchard  Life,  Forest  Life,  and  Road- 
side Life. 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

While  the  pupils  are  becoming  familiar  with  the 
life  of  insects,  they  can  be  taught  something  of  their 
structure  and  of  their  classification  ;  but  with  young 
pupils  these  subjects  should  be  subordinated  to  the 
study  of  the  activities  of  insects.  In  the  first  eight 
lessons  (pages  9-21)  the  parts  of  an  insect  that  can  be 
seen  without  dissection  are  described.  A  locust  or 
grasshopper  is  used  as  an  example,  and  serves  as  a 
type  ;  in  later  chapters  considerable  attention  is  given 
to  the  more  obvious  modifications  of  structure  corre- 
lated with  the  peculiar  habits  of  the  insects  described. 
So  much  of  structure  as  is  desirable  for  the  pupils 
to  learn  can  be  taught  incidentally  while  they  are 
observing  the  habits  of  the  insects. 

After  the  school  has  been  supplied  with  an  aqua- 
rium and  one  or  more  breeding  cages,  provision 
should  be  made  for  preserving  a  collection  of  insects. 
Nothing  will  more  surely  maintain  an  interest  in  Na- 
ture study  than  a  growing  collection  of  insects  made 
by  the  pupils  themselves.  Do  not  buy  a  collection  ; 
the  specimens  that  a  class  can  collect  in  a  single  sum- 
mer day  will  be  worth  more  as  a  stimulus  to  personal 
observation  than  a  purchased  collection.  In  Chapter 
II  (pages  22-50)  are  given  several  lessons  for  begin- 
ners on  collecting  and  preserving  specimens ;  and 
in  Part  II  (pages  2^84-325)  are  suggestions  for  more 
advanced  work  in  this  direction. 

In  a  word,  the  Nature-study  work  should  not  be  a 
fixed,  definite  course ;  the  most  available  objects  of 
the  locality  and  season  should  be  selected  for  study, 
and  these  observed  from  as  many  points  of  view  as 
possible.  One  day  observe  habits  ;  another,  study 
structure  ;  and  later  learn  something  of  classification 


5  INSECT   LIFE. 

by  putting  the  specimens  in  their  proper  place  in  a 
collection. 

The  Nature  study  can  be  made  an  aid  to  work  in 
language  and  in  drawing  ;  many  suggestions  for  this 
are  given  throughout  the  book. 

With  an  aquarium,  a  breeding  cage,  and  a  few 
boxes  for  preserving  specimens,  all  of  which  can  be 
procured  with  little  expense,  both  teacher  and  pupils 
will  find  the  Nature-study  period  the  most  enjoyable 
part  of  the  day. 

Everything  possible  should  be  done  to  make  this 
study  a  recreation  which  the  pupils  will  enjoy  outside 
of  school  hours.  If  each  has  a  collection,  this  will  be 
an  easy  matter.  Do  not  discourage  the  pupils  by  re- 
quiring them  to  memorize  abstract  statements  con- 
cerning insects.  Let  their  knowledge  of  the  subject 
be  based  on  personal  observations.  The  statements 
in  the  book  are  merely  to  aid  the  pupils  in  their  study 
of  the  specimens  ;  personal  observation  should  be  the 
real  source  of  their  information.  The  development 
of  the  habit  of  ascertaining  facts  for  themselves  is 
one  of  the  greatest  benefits  the  pupils  will  derive 
from  this  study. 

In  preparing  the  lessons  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  combine  the  verification  method  and  the  interro- 
gation method  of  laboratory  work  in  such  a  way  as 
to  obtain  the  desirable  results  of  both  systems  and 
to  give  variety  to  the  work.  When  the  former 
method  is  used,  the  teacher  will  be  able  in  most  cases 
to  determine  if  the  pupil  has  correctly  verified  the 
statements  made  in  the  text  by  examining  the  draw- 
ings he  is  required  to  make  or  the  account  he  is  asked 
to  write. 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

It  is  obvious  that,  in  order  properly  to  direct 
work  of  this  kind,  the  teacher  should  be  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  subjects  studied  by  the  pupils. 
The  difficulties  that  have  been  in  the  way  of  the 
teachers  who  have  tried  to  obtain  a  systematic  knowl- 
edge of  insects  is  doubtless  the  chief  reason  that  in- 
sect life  has  not  been  studied  more  in  the  public 
schools.  An  appreciation  of  these  difficulties  led  the 
author  and  the  illustrator  of  this  book  to  prepare 
first,  for  the  use  of  teachers,  a  comprehensive  text- 
book, by  means  of  which  the  teacher  can  easily  pre- 
pare himself  to  direct  the  study  of  his  pupils.  This 
is  entitled  "A  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects."^ 

In  this  study,  perhaps  more  than  in  any  other 
taught  in  the  secondary  schools,  the  pleasure  of  con- 
stantly learning  something  new  can  be  shared  by  the 
teacher  with  the  pupils.  The  writer  has  had  an  un- 
usually broad  experience  in  teaching  this  subject,  but 
he  has  never  yet  taken  a  class  into  the  field  without 
finding  something  new  to  him. 

In  this  connection  we  wish  to  urge  the  importance 
of  perfect  sincerity.  The  teacher  should  frankly  say, 
"  I  do  not  know,"  when  asked  a  question  that  he  can 
not  answer,  and  it  will  be  well  if  he  will  add,  "  We 
will  try  to  find  out."  Teach  the  pupils  early  that 
any  one  by  intelligent  endeavor  can  add  to  the  sum 
of  knowledge. 

While  the  chief  end  of  this  study  is  the  training 
of  the  powers  of  observation  and  the  careful  ascer- 
taining of  facts  in  a  scientific  manner,  it  seems  to  us  to 
be  well  to  encourage  somewhat  an  imaginative  view 

*  Published  by  the  Comstock  Publishing  Company,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 


8  INSECT    LIFE. 

of  the  subject.  For  this  purpose  we  have  included 
some  poetical  references  to  insects.  We  believe  that 
the  reading  of  these  by  the  pupils  will  both  stimulate 
their  love  of  a  poetical  form  of  expression  and  bring 
them  in  closer  sympathy  with  the  world  of  life 
around  us. 


PART   I. 

LESSONS   IN   INSECT   LIFE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    PARTS    OF    AN    INSECT. 

'OOK  at  an  insect  and  you  will  find  a  creature 

with   parts   which    are   very   different   from 

those  of  the  animals  with  which  we  are  more 

familiar.     Although  it   can  see,  hear,  eat, 

and  walk,  its  eyes,  ears,  mouth,  and  legs 

are  not  like  the  corresponding  organs  of 

the  higher  animals. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  at  the 
beginning  of  our  study  of  insect  life, 
to  learn  something  of  the  structure  of  insects.  We 
will  not  attempt  at  first,  however,  to  make  a  thor- 
ough study  of  insect  anatomy,  but  will  merely  select 
one  kind  of  insect,,  and  study  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  body  as  seen  from  the  outside. 

Having  done  this,  we  will  be  able  to  see  in  our 
later  studies  in  what  ways  the  parts  of  other  kinds  of 
insects  have  been  modified  in  form  to  fit  them  for 
their  modes  of  life.  Thus,  for  example,  we  will  find 
that  an  insect  which  catches  its  prey  by  running  has 
legs  of  a  different  shape  than  those  of  an  insect  that 

9 


10  INSECT   LIFE. 

swims  through  the  water ;  and  an  insect  that  sucks 
the  blood  from  its  victims  has  a  different  kind  of 
mouth  than  one  that  chews  up  the  leaves  of  plants. 

It  is  also  important  that  w^e  should  know  the 
names  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  body  of  an  insect, 
so  that  we  may  understand  descriptions  of  insects, 
and  be  able  to  write  descriptions  ourselves. 

We  have  selected  locusts,  or  grasshoppers  as  they 
are  more  commonly  called,  for  the  subject  of  these 
introductory  lessonSo  We  have  done  this  because 
locusts  are  quite  large,  and  are  common  in  all  parts 
of  our  country ;  and,  too,  the  parts  of  the  body  in 
these  insects  are  comparatively  simple. 

In  the  course  of  these  lessons  the  following  things 
will  be  needed  :  A  supply  of  locusts,"^  blank  paper 
and  pencils  for  making  notes  and  drawings,  one  or 
more  cyanide  bottles  (see  page  286)  for  killing  the 
specimens  collected  by  the  pupils,  a  lens,  cardboard 
and  mucilage  for  mounting  dissections,  and  scissors. 
A  compound  microscope  is  very  desirable,  but  not 
absolutely  necessary. 

*  It  is  best,  when  practicable,  that  the  pupils  should  collect  these  for 
themselves.  But  in  the  case  of  city  schools,  or  when  the  work  is  begun 
at  a  season  of  the  year  when  these  insects  are  not  readily  found,  the 
teacher  should  have  on  hand  a  supply  of  locusts  preserved  in  alcohol. 
These  can  be  collected  beforehand  or  obtained  of  some  dealer  in  labora- 
tory supplies.  The  best  way  to  collect  them  is  by  sweeping  (see  page  291) 
the  grass  in  a  dry  meadow  or  pasture  in  late  summer  or  early  autumn. 
In  this  way  a  pint  or  more  of  locusts  can  be  collected  in  a  short  time. 
These  can  be  preserved  in  alcohol  in  an  ordinary  glass  can,  such  as  is 
used  for  preserving  fruit.  There  should  be  more  than  enough  alcohol  to 
cover  the  insects,  and  after  they  have  been  in  it  for  twenty-four  hours  it 
should  be  poured  off  and  fresh  alcohol  substituted.  A  list  of  dealers  in 
laboratory  supplies  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  volume  for  the  conven- 
ience of  those  who  wish  to  purchase  specimens. 


THE   PARTS    OF    A   LOCUST. 


II 


Fig.  I. — A  locust. 


LESSON   I. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST. 

Collection  of  Specimens  and  a  General  View  of  the  Body. 

1.  Collect  several  locusts  or  short-horned  grass- 
hoppers and  bring  them  to  the  school.  They  can  be 
carried  in  a  small  box 
or  wide-mouthed  bottle. 
Fig.  I  represents  one  of 
these  insects. 

2.  If   living    locusts 
are  collected,  kill  them 
by  leaving  them  in  a  cyanide  bottle  for  a  half  hour 
or  more. 

Note. — If  the  pupils  can  not  find  living  locusts  at  the  time  this 
lesson  is  taken,  preserved  specimens  will  be  furnished  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Count  the  legs  and  the  wings  of  the  locusts, 
and  make  a  note  of  the  number  of  each  on  a  sheet  of 
paper  headed  Notes  on  the  Parts  of  a  Locust. 

4.  Study  the  body  of  the  insect  and  observe  that 
it  is  composed  of  three  portions:  first,  the  head ;  sec- 
ond, a  stout  portion  to  which  the 
legs  and  wings  are  attached,  the 


Fig.  2. — Wasp,  with  head,  tho- 
rax, and  abdomen  separated. 


Fig.  3. — Side  view  of  locust  with  wings 
removed. 


thorax ;  and,  third,  the  hinder  part  of   the   body  or 
abdomen  iab-do' men). 

In  a  locust  the  division  between  the  thorax  and 
2 


12 


INSECT    LIFE. 


the  abdomen  is  not  well  marked.  Fig.  2  represents 
a  wasp  with  the  three  regions  of  the  body  separated, 
and  in  Fig.  3  a  locust  is  represented  with  its  wings  re- 
moved so  as  to  show  the  extent  of  each  of  these  regions. 
5.  Make  a  copy  on  your  sheet  of  notes  of  the 
figure  of  a  side  view  of  a  locust. 


LliSSON   II. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

The  Head,  except  the  Mouth-parts. 

The  head  is  the  first  of  the  three  regions  of  the 
body.  It  contains  the  brain  of  the  insect  and  other 
important  organs ;  but  in  these  lessons  we  will  study 
only  the  outside  parts  of  it.  The  head  bears  the 
antennse,  the  eyes,  and  the  mouth-parts. 

1.  The  antenncE  {cm-ten' nee)  are  the  two  long,  slen- 
der organs  attached  to  the  head  in  front  of  the  large 
eyes.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  them.  The  singu- 
lar form  of  the  word  antennse  is  antenna  (an-ten'na). 

2.  Study  the  large  eyes  which  are  situated  one  on 
each  side  of  the  head.     Examine  them  with  a  lens, 

.A^  .^>^  jbt^  also  with  a  microscope  if  you  have 
the  use  of  one.  The  surface  of  the 
eye  when  much  magnified  resem- 
bles honeycomb  in  appearance  (Fig. 
4).  Each  of  the  six-sided  divisions 
FiG.T-P^  ^com-  o^  the  large  eye  is  a  complete  eye, 
pound   eye,  greatly  hcncc  the  larp^c  cvcs  are  compound 

enlarged.  o         ./ 


i^^va^^^^^^^^^^^ 


eyes. 
3.  In  addition  to  the  two  large  compound  eyes  a 
locust  has  three  simple  eyes.     There  is  one  of  these 


THE   PARTS   OF   A   LOCUST.  1 3 

just  in  front  of  the  upper  part  of  each  compound  eye, 
and  the  third  is  in  a  hollow  near  the  middle  of  the 
face  of  the  locust ;  find  each  of  these. 

Note. — The  simple  eyes  are  usually  called  the  ocelli  {o-cel'li).  This 
term  is  also  applied  frequently  to  the  little  eyes,  or  ommatidia,  of  which 
the  compound  eyes  are  composed  ;  but  if  nothing  is  said  to  indicate  that 
the  parts  of  a  compound  eye  are  meant,  the  term  ocelli  always  refers  to 
the  simple  eyes.  In  the  same  way  the  term  eyes  usually  refers  to  the 
compound  eyes  alone.     The  singular  form  of  ocelli  is  ocellus  {p-cel lus). 

4.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  front  side  of  the  head 
showing  the  position  of  the  antennas,  the  eyes,  and 
the  ocelli. 

LESSON   III. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED), 

The  Mouth-parts. 

1.  Attached  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  front  side  of 
the  head  of  the  locust  is  a  movable  flap  ;  this  is  the 
upper  lip  or  labrum  {la' brinn).  Carefully  remove  it 
with  a  knife  and  save  it. 

2.  By  removing  the  upper  lip  there  is  exposed  a 
pair  of  horny  jaws  ;  these  are  the  mandibles  {inan'di- 
bles).  The  mandibles  open  sidewise  instead  of  up  and 
down  like  the  jaws  of  higher  animals.  Carefully  re- 
move the  mandibles.  This  can  be  done  by  separating 
them  with  a  pin,  and  turning  each  one  sidewise  till  it 
breaks  from  the  head.     Save  the  mandibles. 

3.  By  the  removal  of  the  mandibles  there  is  ex- 
posed a  second  pair  of  jaws,  which,  like  the  mandi- 
bles, open  sidewise.  These  are  the  maxillce  {max- 
il'lce).  The  singular  form  of  maxillse  is  maxilla  (max- 
il'la).  The  maxillse,  unlike  the  mandibles,  are  very 
complicated  organs,  each   maxilla  consisting  of  sev- 


14 


INSECT    LIFE. 


eral  parts.     Leave  the  maxillas  attached  to  the  head 
till  later. 

4.  Remove  the  head  of  the  locust  and  pin  it  with 
the  hinder  side  uppermost  to  a  piece  of  cork  or  block 
of  wood. 

5.  With  the  head  in  this  position  the  flaplike 
lower  lip  or  labium  {la'bi-uni)  can  be  easily  seen. 
Like  the  maxillse,  the  labium  consists  of  several 
parts. 

6.  Lift  the  free  end  of  the  labium  with  a  pin  and 
observe  the  tonguelike  organ  which  arises  from  the 

inner  side  of  it,  and  pro- 
jects between  the  maxillse ; 
this  is  the  hypopharynx  (Jiy- 
po-phar' ynx). 

7.  Remove  the  labium 
and  the  hypopharynx  and 
save  them. 

8.  After  the  removal  of 
the  labium  it  will  be  easier 
to  remove  the  maxillas  than 
before.  Remove  them  and 
save  them. 

9.  Arrange  the  mouth- 
parts  on  a  card  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5  and  gum  them  in 
place. 

10.  The  five-jointed  appendages  of  the  maxillae  are 
the  maxillary  palpi.     The  singular  of  palpi  is  palpus. 

11.  The  three-jointed  appendages  of  the  lower  lip 
or  labium  are  the  labial  palpi. 

Review. — The  mouth-parts  of  a  locust  consist  of 
an  upper  lip,  the  labrum ;  an  under  lip,  the  labium; 


Fig, 


5. — The  mouth-parts  of  a  lo- 
cust :  8,  labrum  ;  10,  mandibles  ; 
II,  maxillse;  ii  ^,  maxillary- 
palpi  ;  12,  labium  ;  12  d^  labial 
palpi ;  13,  hypopharynx. 


THE    PARTS    OF   A   LOCUST. 


15 


two  pairs  of  jaws,  the  maitdibles  and  the  maxillce ;  and 
a  tonguelike  organ,  the  hypopharynx.  The  jaws  open 
sidewise  instead  of  up  and  down,  as  do  the  jaws  of 
the  higher  animals.  The  upper  pair  of  jaws  are  called 
the  mandibles ;  the  lower  pair  of  jaws  the  maxillce. 
Each  maxilla  bears  a  palpus  ;  these  are  the  maxillary 
palpi.  The  labium  bears  a  pair  of  palpi ;  these  are 
the  labial  palpi. 

LESSON   IV. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

The  Appendages  of  the  Thorax,  the  Legs. 

The  thorax  is  the  middle  one  of  the  three  regions 
of  the  body  (see  Lesson  I  and  Fig.  3).  The  append- 
ages of  the  thorax  are  three  pairs  of  legs  and  two 
pairs  of  wings.  In  this  lesson  we  will  study  the 
legs. 

1.  Study  carefully  one  of  the  fore  legs  of  the 
locust  and  observe  that  it  is  composed  of  several 
parts  or  segments.  Each  of  these  segments  of  the 
leg  has  a  distinct  name.  As  these  names  are  often 
used  in  descriptions  of  insects,  it  is  necessary  to  learn 
them. 

2.  The  first  segment  of  the  legs,  the  one  that  is 
joined  to  the  body,  is  nearly  globular  in  outline  ;  this 
is  the  coxa  {cox' a). 

3.  The  second  segment  of  the  leg  is  much  smaller 
than  the  coxa ;  this  is  the  trochanter  (tro-chan'ter). 

4.  The  third  segment  of  the  leg  is  the  principal 
one  ;  this  is  t\\Q  femur  {fe'mur).  Its  name  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  principal  bone  in  the  human  leg. 

5.  The  fourth  segment  of  the  leg  is  nearly  as  long 


1 6  INSECT    LIFE. 

as  the  femur,  but  it  is  more  slender;  it  is  called  the 
tibia  {tib'i-d).  This  name  is  the  same  as  the  name  of 
the  principal  bone  between  the  knee  and  ankle  of  the 
human  leg. 

6.  All  of  the  leg  of  the  locust  beyond  the  tibia  is 
the  foot  or  tarsus  {tar'sus).  This  part  consists  of 
three  segments  in  the  locust,  but  the  number  of  seg- 
ments in  the  tarsus  differs  in  different  kinds  of  in- 
sects. 

7.  The  last  segment  of  the  tarsus  bears  a  pair  of 
claws.     These  are  called  the  tarsal  claws. 

8.  Find  each  of  the  parts  named  above  in  each  of 
the  legs  of  the  locust. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  the  fore  legs  and 
name  the  parts. 

10.  The  plurals  of  the  terms  are  as  follows  :  coxa, 
coxge  ;  trochanter,  trochanters  ;  femur,  femora  (fem'- 
o-ra) ;  tibia,  tibise  ;  tarsus,  tarsi. 


LESSON  V. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

The  Appendages  of  the  Thorax^  the  Wings. 

1.  Remove  the  two  wings  of  one  side,  spread 
them  out  on  a  card,  and  gum  them  in  place. 

2.  Study  the  wings  and  observe  that  each  is  com- 
posed of  a  membrane  strengthened  by  a  framework 
of  thicker  lines.  These  thickened  lines  composing 
the  framework  are  called  the  veins  of  the  wings.  The 
term  vein  used  in  this  connection  is  not  very  appro- 
priate, but  as  it  is  in  general  use  it  would  not  be  well 
to  attempt  to  change  it. 


THE    PARTS   OF   A   LOCUST. 


17 


3.  Observe  the  strong,  longitudinal  veins,  and  the 
numerous  smaller  cross-veins. 

4.  The  portions  of  the  membrane  bounded  by  the 
veins  are  called  the  cells. 

5.  Cut  a  piece  about  one  fourth  inch  square  from 
one  of  the  wings  not  removed  from  the  body,  mount 
it  on  a  card,  and  make  a  careful  drawing  of  the  veins 
and  cells.  Label  the  drawing  as  follows  :  Fragment 
of  the  zving  of  a  locust  showing  the  veins  and  the  cells. 

6.  Write  a  description  of  the  wings  of  a  locust ; 
describe  first  the  general  features  of  the  wings,  and 
then  state  how  the  two  wings  of  one  side  differ  from 
each  other. 

LESSON  VI. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

The  Thorax. 

1.  In  this  lesson  we  are  to  study  the  parts  of  the 
thorax,  but  before  beginning  this  study  the  pupil 
should  examine  the  abdomen  and  observe  that  the 
body  wall  of  that  region  is  composed  of  several  ring- 
like segments. 

2.  Like  the  abdomen,  the  entire  body  of  an  insect 
is  made  up  of  a  series  of  segments,  but  it  is  not  so 
easy  to  distinguish  "the  separate  segments  in  the  head 
and  thorax  as  it  is  in  the  abdomen, 

3.  The  segments  of  which  the  head  is  composed 
are  grown  together  so  completely  that  the  head  ap- 
pears to  consist  of  a  single  segment. 

4.  The  thorax  consists  of  three  segments,  which 
we  will  try  to  distinguish.  Observe  that  the  first 
pair  of  legs  are  borne  by  a  ringlike  part  which  can 


l8  INSECT    LIFE. 

be  separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  thorax.    This 
is  the  first  of  the  segments  of  the  thorax. 

5.  Separate  the  first  segment  of  the  thorax  from 
the  remainder  of  this  region.  Observe  that  the  belly 
or  ventral  's>\d.Q  is  small,  while  the  upper  or  dorsal  ^\diQ 
is  large,  being  composed  of  the  large  sunbonnet- 
shaped  piece  which  is  just  back  of  the  head. 

6.  The  first  segment  of  the  thorax  is  called  the 
prothorax  {^pro-tho' rax). 

7.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  side  view  of  the  prothorax 
representing  the  left  side. 

8.  The  portion  of  the  thorax  remaining  consists 
of  two  segments  closely  grown  together.  These  are 
the  second  and  third  thoracic  segments.  The  second 
thoracic  segment  bears  the  second  pair  of  legs  and  the 
first  pair  of  wings  ;  the  third  thoracic  segment  bears 
the  third  pair  of  legs  and  the  second  pair  of  wings. 
Study  the  specimen  and  try  to  make  out  the  limits 
of  these  segments. 

9.  The  second  or  middle  thoracic  segment  is  called 
the  mesothorax  (ines-o-tho'rax).  The  third  or  last  tho- 
racic segment  is  called  the  metathorax  {inet-a-tho'rax). 

10.  Remove  the  wings  and  make  a  drawing  of 
the  left  side  of  these  two  segments. 

11.  Observe  that  the  greater  part  of  each  side  of 
these  two  segments  consists  of  four  large,  oblique 
pieces.  The  first  two  of  these  pieces  belong  to  the 
mesothorax,  the  last  two  to  the  metathorax. 

Review, — The  body  of  an  insect  consists  of  a  series 
of  segments ;  of  these  the  first  three  behind  the  head 
form  the  thorax.  The  three  segments  of  the  thorax 
are  called  the  prothorax,  the  mesothorax,  and  the  meta- 
thorax respectively. 


THE    PARTS   OF   A   LOCUST. 


19 


LESSON  VII. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

The  Abdomen. 

The  abdomen  is  that  portion  of  the  body  which 
is  behind  the  thorax.  In  a  locust  the  thorax  and  ab- 
domen are  so  closely  connected  that  it  requires  care- 
ful study  to  determine  where  one  ends  and  the  other 
begins. 

1.  Examine  the  ventral  or  belly  side  of  the  body 
and  determine  which  is  the  first  abdominal  segment. 
The  front  edge  of  this  segment  is  dovetailed  into  the 
metathorax,  so  that  at  first  sight  it  appears  to  be  a 
part  of  the  thorax. 

2.  Examine  the  upper  or  dorsal  part  of  the  first 
abdominal  segment ;  this  is  widely  separated  from 
the  ventral  part  by  the  cavities  for  the  insertion  of 
the  hind  legs. 

3.  Observe  the  ears ;  these  are  situated  one  on 
each  side  of  the  first  abdominal  segment.  Each  is  a 
large  opening  in  the  body  wall  which  is  closed  by  a 
very  delicate  membrane  (see  Fig.  3).  Locusts  differ 
from  other  insects  in  having  ears  in  this  position. 

4.  Examine  the  seven  abdominal  segments  follow- 
ing the  first ;  each*  of  these  is  ringlike  in  form. 

5.  Find  the  breathing  holes  or  spiracles.  There 
is  a  row  of  them  on  each  side  of  the  bod}^  The  first 
one  on  each  side  that  is  in  the  abdomen  is  just  in 
front  of  the  ear.  In  the  seven  following  abdominal 
segments  there  is  one  on  each  side  of  each  segment 
near  the  lower  front  corner  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
segment. 


20  INSECT   LIFE. 

Note. — In  addition  to  the  abdominal  spiracles,  there  are  two  pairs  of 
spiracles  which  belong  to  the  thorax  :  one  of  these  is  situated  in  the 
membrane  between  the  prothorax  and  mesothorax  ;  the  other  just  above 
and  a  little  back  of  the  insertion  of  the  middle  pair  of  legs.  The  first 
of  these  two  pairs  is  covered  by  the  free  margin  of  the  prothorax,  which 
can  be  cut  away  with  scissors. 

6.  Examiae  several  specimens  of  locusts  and  ob- 
serve that  in  some  the  hind  or  caudal  end  of  the 
body  tapers  to  the  end  and  bears  four  pointed  and 
curved,  horny  pieces,  and  that  in  others  this  end  of 
the  body  is  terminated  by  a  single,  large,  hood-shaped 
plate.  Those  in  which  the  body  ends  in  four  pieces 
are  females  ;  the  others  are  males. 

7.  The  four  pieces  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body 
of  the  female  are  for  making  holes  in  the  ground  or 
in  soft  w^ood  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid,  and  are  called 
the  ovipositor. 

8.  In  using  the  ovipositor  the  insect  pushes  it  into 
the  ground  and  then  spreads  the  pieces  apart ;  by  re- 
peating this  operation  many  times  a  deep  hole  is 
made  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  left  side  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  represent  carefully  the  position  of  the  ear  and 
of  the  spiracles.  Use  either  a  male  or  female,  but 
state  under  the  drawing  which  sex  it  represents. 


LESSON  VIII. 

THE    PARTS    OF    A    LOCUST    (CONTINUED). 

Review. 

The  following  table  illustrates  the  relations  of  the 
parts  of  a  locust  that  have  been  studied  in  the  pre- 
ceding  lessons.     The  pupils  should  learn  this  table 


THE   PARTS   OF   A   LOCUST. 


21 


SO  that  they  can  write  it  without  referring  to  the 
book : 

Antennae. 
Compound  eyes. 
Simple  eyes  or  ocelli. 

f  Labrum. 

I  Mandibles. 


Head. 


Mouth-parts,      -i   Maxilla  and  maxillary  palpi. 


Thorax.  -{ 


Labium  and  labial  palpi 
Prothorax  and  first  pair  of  legs. 

second  pair  of  legs, 
first  pair  of  wings, 
third  pair  of  legs, 
second  pair  of  wings. 
\  veins. 


Mesothorax  and 
Metathorax  and 


Wing 


Leg 


Abdomen. 


I  cells. 

Coxa. 

Trochanter. 

Femur. 

Tibia. 
(^  Tarsus  and  claws. 


(  ears  (in  locusts  only). 
The  abdomen  bears  •<  spiracles. 
(  ovipositor. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE    BEGINNING    OF    A  COLLECTION   AND   A    STUDY    OF    THE 
^lETAMORPHOSES    OF    INSECTS. 


HE  mere  reading  of  books 
about  natural  objects  will  do 
but  little  toward  forming  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with 
Nature.  If  one  w^ould  really 
know  about  the  creatures  that 
are  near  us  wherever  we  go, 
he  must  study  them  directly,  and  not  depend  on 
what  others  have  said  about  them. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  these  first  lessons  in 
Insect  Life  are  based  on  the  study  of  specimens  that 
the  pupils  have  collected  for  themselves.  It  will  be 
far  better  for  the  pupils  to  learn  a  few  things  at  first 
hand  than  to  memorize  a  great  mass  of  information 
from  books. 

In  most  places  it  is  comparatively  easy  to  find 
insects.  The  pupils  can  collect  them  while  going  to 
and  from  school  or  during  recess ;  or  a  class  may  be 
excused  for  an  hour  or  two  occasionally  to  make 
longer  trips,  under  the  direction  of  one  of  the  older 
pupils  :  but,  when  possible,  the  teacher  should  accom- 
pany the  pupils  in  their  excursions.  More  insects 
will  be  found  on  w^arm  days  when  the  sun  is  shining 
than  at  other  times. 

22 


THE   BEGINNING   OF   A   COLLECTION. 


23 


In  the  case  of  city  schools  that  are  remote  from 
parks  or  other  good  collecting  fields,  excursions  into 
country  places  can  be  made  on  Saturdays,  and  the 
specimens  collected  on  such  an  excursion  can  be  kept 
for  study  till  the  following  Monday.  Much  more 
progress  in  attaining  real  knowledge  will  be  made  in 
this  way  than  by  daily  recitations  based  on  a  study 
of  a  book  about  insects. 

With  a  little  effort  living  insects  can  be  kept  in 
breeding  cages  or  aquaria,  so  that  the  specimens  col- 
lected on  a  single  excursion  may  serve  for  daily  ob- 
servations for  a  long  time. 

Each  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  make  a  per- 
manent collection  for  himself.  With  such  a  collec- 
tion there  is  little  danger  of  his  losing  his  interest  in 
the  subject ;  and  the  facts  that  he  has  learned  will  be 
remembered  more  easily.  Moreover,  the  making  of 
additions  to  a  collection  and  the  frequent  rearranging 
of  it  will  be  a  source  of  great  pleasure  and  instruction. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  impracticable  for  the  pupils 
to  make  private  collections,  a  collection  should  be 
made  for  the  school.  If  the  specimens  in  such  a  col- 
lection are  labeled  with  the  names  of  the  collectors, 
the  pupils  will  be  stimulated  to  make  additions  to  it. 
And  if,  as  soon  as  the  older  pupils  have  learned  to 
handle  specimens  carefully,  each  is  appointed  curator 
of  some  group  of  insects,  a  personal  interest  in  the 
collection  will  be  stimulated,  and  each  wall  acquire  a 
more  thorough  knowledge  of  the  group  collected 
than  he  would  otherwise. 

The  group  assigned  to  a  student  may  be  some 
order  or  family  of  insects,  or  an  artificial  group  based 
on   habits.      Some   experience    with   the   local   con- 


24 


INSECT    LIFE. 


ditions  in  each  school  will  be  necessary  for  the 
teacher  to  be  able  to  select  the  more  available  groups. 

Even  when  the  pupils  make  private  collections  it 
will  be  well  to  have  each  one,  after  he  has  become 
familiar  with  the  different  orders,  select  some  one  of 
them  as  his  specialty,  and  study  that  one  more  thor- 
oughly. In  this  way  he  will  be  forced  to  do  more 
careful  collecting  in  order  to  add  to  his  collection 
constantly,  and  he  will  thus  learn  more  about  the 
habits  of  the  insects  collected. 

Before  beginning  the  work  the  teacher  should 
decide  what  apparatus  is  to  be  used,  and  make  pro- 
vision for  obtaining  that  part  of  it  which  the  pupils 
are  not  to  make  for  themselves,  so  that  the  work 
shall  not  be  delayed  by  lack  of  material. 

Although  there  are  many  things  that  are  desira- 
ble for  carrying  on  this  work,  much  can  be  accom- 
plished with  very  little  material  and  that  which  is 
inexpensive.  The  following  lists  will  aid  the  teacher 
in  deciding  what  to  get : — 

Necessary  Supplies  for  Pupils. 

Cyanide  bottles.     See  page  286. 
Pins.     See  page  295. 
Empty  cigar-boxes.     See  page  306. 
Cork  or  pith.     See  page  309. 

Additional  Supplies  desirable  for  Pupils. 

Insect  nets.     See  page  285. 
Glass-topped  cases.     See  page  306. 
Coddington  lenses.     See  below. 
Vials. 
Alcohol. 


THE    BEGINNING   OF   A   COLLECTION.  25 


Desirable  Supplies  foi'  the  School. 

Cabinet  for  insect  cases.     See  page  294. 

Pliers  or  pinning  forceps.     See  page  299. 

Cases,  pins,  vials,  and  alcohol. 

Microscope.     See  below. 

Supplies  for  mounting  microscopic  objects.  See 
page  300. 

At  least  the  teacher  should  possess  a  lens.  01 
the  cheaper  lenses  the  form  known  as  the  Codding- 
ton  lenses  I  have  found  to  be  the  best.  These  are 
commonly  kept  by  stationers  or  jewelers.  They  can 
also  be  procured  of  any  dealer  in  optical  instruments. 
See  list  of  dealers  at  the  end  of  this  volume. 

If  a  microscope  be  procured  for  the  school,  care 
should  be  taken  to  get  one  provided  with  what  is 
known  as  the  society  screw,  so  that  objectives  of  any 
of  the  more  prominent  makers  can  be  used  on  it.  If 
the  funds  at  the  disposal  of  the  school  will  only  admit 
of  the  purchase  of  a  microscope  with  a  single  objec- 
tive, a  three-fourths-inch  objective  will  be  found  as 
useful  as  any  for  entomological  work,  and  perhaps 
later  a  one-fifth-inch  objective  or  others  can  be  added. 
Price  lists  of  microscopes  will  be  furnished  by  deal- 
ers in  optical  instruments.  Most  dealers  make 
discounts  from  thtir  list  prices  when  furnishing 
schools. 

In  preparing  the  above  suggestions  we  have  tried 
to  keep  in  mind  the  needs  and  the  ability  of  supply- 
ing these  needs  of  both  teachers  in  the  smaller 
schools,  where  there  may  be  no  funds  to  spend  for 
apparatus,  and  of  teachers  in  the  larger  schools,  where 
even  costly  apparatus  can  be  purchased. 


25  INSECT    LIFE. 

LESSON    IX. 

PREPARATION    FOR    A    COLLECTING    TRIP. 

Havinof  learned  somethins:  about  the  structure  of 
a  locust,  which  was  taken  as  a  t3^pical  insect,  we  are 
ready  to  begin  the  study  of  other  insects.  In  doing 
this  we  will  first  learn  how  to  collect  and  preserve 
specimens  ;  after  that  we  will  study  the  classification 
of  insects  and  the  life  histories  of  some  of  them. 

The  forms  of  insects  are  numberless,  and  their 
ways  are  as  varied  as  are  their  forms.  As  we  walk 
over  the  fields  they  spring  up  before  us  or  scurry 
away  through  the  grass.  Some  fly  lazily  here  and 
there  ;  others  dart  back  and  forth  with  the  rapidity  of 
thought.  We  crush  them  under  foot  by  a  careless 
step  ;  we  find  them  on  every  shrub  and  tree  ;  and 
the  streams  and  ponds  are  peopled  by  them. 

Let  us  approach  their  study  with  kindly  feelings, 
bent  on  learning  what  we  can  concerning  them  and 
their  ways,  and  putting  aside  the  false  notion  that 
many  of  us  have  been  taught  that  these  creatures  are 
to  be  despised.  The  great  majority  of  them  can  be 
regarded  as  our  friends,  for  they  are  of  service 
to  us ;  others,  while  not  actually  beneficial,  do  us  no 
appreciable  harm  ;  a  few,  and  they  are  only  a  few 
compared  with  the  great  number  that  make  up  the 
insect  world,  interfere  with  our  happiness.  These 
we  are  forced  to  fight ;  but  the  combat  is  one  of  self- 
defense  and  not  a  war  against  an  enemy  that  harms 
us  maliciously. 

In  making  a  collection  for  study  it  will  be  neces- 
sary for  us  to  kill  specimens ;  but  we  will  do  this  as 


PREPARATION   FOR   A   COLLECTING   TRIP.  27 

humanely  as  possible,  and  will  not  destroy  more  than 
we  need  for  our  work. 

The  objects  of  this  lesson  are  two  :  first,  the 
suggesting  of  a  proper  spirit  in  which  to  take  up 
this  work  ;  and,  second,  the  getting  ready  for  our  first 
field  trip,  so  that  when  the  time  comes  to  start  there 
will  be  no  delay. 

The  most  important  thing  to  carry  with  you  into 
the  field  is  a  good  pair  of  eyes.  Without  these  but 
little  will  be  accomplished. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  collecting  apparatus  the 
most  important  is  a  cyanide  bottle.  Each  pupil,  if 
possible,  should  have  one  of  these.  On  page  286  will 
be  found  directions  for  making  them. 

In  addition  to  a  cyanide  bottle  it  will  be  well  if 
each  one  has  an  insect  net,  although  much  can  be 
done  without  a  net.  See  page  285  for  a  description 
of  an  insect  net. 

No  other  apparatus  is  needed  for  the  first  field 
trip,  but  it  will  be  well  if  some  provision  be  made  at 
once  for  preserving  the  insects  that  you  are  going  to 
collect.  The  following  are  the  more  important 
things  needed  for  this: 

1.  An  insect  case  or  empty  cigar-boxes.  Read 
what  is  said  on  pages  306  to  310  regarding  these,  and 
note  especially  what'is  said  on  page  310  regarding 
the  use  of  corn  pith  for  lining  cigar-boxes. 

2.  A  supply  of  insect  pins  or,  if  these  can  not  be 
obtained,  a  paper  of  ordinary  pins.  Read  what  is 
said  on  this  subject  on  pages  295  to  299. 


28  INSECT    LIFE. 

LESSON   X. 

THE    FIRST    COLLECTING    TRIP. 

Material  needed  for  the  Excursion. — "  A  sharp  pair 
of  eyes,"  a  cyanide  bottle,  and  an  insect  net  if  you 
have  one. 

Where  to  look  for  Specimens. — On  flowers  and 
leaves,  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  under  stones 
and  pieces  of  w^ood  lying  on  the  ground,  in  rotten 
stumps,  and  under  the  bark  of  decaying  logs  and 
trees. 

What  to  collect. — We  plan  to  study  all  kinds  of 
insects  and  also  some  animals  that  are  not  true  in- 
sects, but  are  closely  related  to  them.  It  will  be  best, 
however,  on  this  first  excursion  to  collect  only  winged 
insects.  Other  forms  may  be  collected  and  studied 
later  in  the  course. 

Suggestions. — Do  not  leave  your  cyanide  bottle 
open  unnecessarily,  for  if  you  do  it  will  lose  its 
strength  in  a  short  time.  With  proper  care  a  cyanide 
bottle  will  last  several  months. 

Do  not  hold  your  face  near  the  open  cyanide 
bottle  so  as  to  breathe  the  fumes  that  escape  from  it. 
With  ordinary  care  there  is  no  danger  in  the  use  of 
a  cyanide  bottle. 

You  can  take  bees  and  wasps  from  flowers  with- 
out danger  of  being  stung  by  shutting  them  into  the 
bottle  with  the  cork.  Take  the  bottle  in  one  hand 
and  the  cork  in  the  other,  and  bring  the  two  together 
quickly,  one  on  each  side  of  the  insect. 

The  insects  collected  can  be  left  in  the  cyanide 
bottles  or  on  damp  sand   in  a  jar  or  tight  box  till 


THE   FIRST    COLLECTING   TRIP. 


29 


the  following  day.  If  the  excursion  is  made  on 
Saturday  the  insects  can  be  kept  soft  in  this  way  till 
Monday. 


Fig.  6. — Poison  ivy.     (Note  that  the  leaflets  are  in  threes,  and  that  each  has 
only  a  single  midrib. ) 

If  a  cyanide  bottle  is  wet  inside  it  should  be 
wiped  out  and  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  placed  in  it. 
But  if  the  dampness  is  due  to  the  dissolving  of  the 
cyanide  it  is  better  to  put  enough  dry  plaster  of  Paris 


Fig.  7, — Virginia  creeper.     (Note  that  the  leaflets  are  in  fives.) 

into  the  bottle  to  absorb  the  liquid  ;  sprinkle  the 
plaster  of  Paris  carefully  on  top  of  the  layer  of 
cement  in  the  bottom  of  the  bottle,  so  that  the  whole 
shall  form  one  solid  layer. 

To   the    Teacher. — If   poison   ivy    or    poison    oak 
abounds  in  the  region  where  the  pupils  are  to  col- 


30 


INSECT    LIFE. 


lect,  the    plant    should  be    made    known    to    them. 
They  should  also   be  able   to    distinguish    between 


F.G.  8.— Clematii 


(Note  that  the  leaflets  are  in  threes,  like  the  poison  ivy, 
but  each  leaflet  has  several  midribs.) 


poison  ivy  and  the  harmless   Virginia  creeper  and 
clematis.     See  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8.* 


LESSON   XI. 

ON    MOUNTING     SPECIMENS. 

1.  Take  the  specimens  that  were  collected  on  the 
first  collecting  trip,  and  which  have  been  kept  moist 
either  by  being  left  in  the  cyanide  bottle  or  in  a 
closed  vessel  upon  damp  sand,  and  spread  them  out 
before  you.  If  the  directions  were  followed,  they 
are  all  winged. 

2.  Select  one  of  the  larger  specimens  and  observe 


*  The  writer,  who  is  extremely  susceptible  to  the  poison  of  poison 
oak  and  poison  ivy,  has  experienced  great  relief  when  poisoned  by  bath- 
ing the  affected  parts  frequently  with  a  lotion  made  of  one  part  tincture 
of  grindelia  and  four  parts  water.  Prompt  and  frequent  application  of 
this  lotion  will  prevent  the  appearance  of  the  pustules  characteristic  of 
this  disease ;  if  the  application  be  not  made  soon  enough  for  this,  the 
injury  can  be  kept  from  spreading  by  a  thorough  oxidi persistent  use  of  the 
lotion. 


ON   MOUNTING   SPECIMENS. 


31 


that,  as  with  the  locust,  the  body  consists  of  three 
main  parts — the  head,  the  thorax,  and  the  abdomen. 

3.  In  pinning  insects  most  specimens  should  be 
pinned  through  the  middle  of  the  thorax.  Read  the 
section  on  pinning  insects  on  page  297. 

4.  Pin  four  or  five  of  the  larger  specimens  in  this 
way,  leaving  about  one  fourth  of  the  length  of  the 
pin  above  the  back  of  the  insect.  If  insect  pins 
be  used,  avoid  using  the  smaller  sizes,  as  they  are 
easily  bent.  Insects  that  are  too  small  to  be  pinned 
with  No.  3  Klager  pins  should  be  mounted  on  cards 
as  described  later. 

5.  Ascertain  if  you  have  any  beetles  in  your  col- 
lection. Beetles  have  a  pair  of  wing-covers  in  the 
place  of  the  front  wings. 
These  wing  -  covers  are 
thick  and  horny,  and 
meet  in  a  straight  line 
down  the  back  of  the  in- 
sect, forming  a  hard  case, 
beneath  which  the  hind 
wings  are  folded.  Fig. 
9  represents  a  beetle. 

6.  Separate  the  beetles 
in  your  collection  from 
the  other  specimens. 

7.  In  pinning  beetles 
the  pin  should  be  put 
through  the  right  wing-cover  at  a  point  about  one 
fourth  the  length  of  the  wing-cover  from  its  base 
(see  Fig.  10). 

8.  Pin  all  the  beetles  in  your  collection  that  are 
large  enough  to  be  pinned. 


Fig.  g. — A  beetle. 


22  *  INSECT    LIFE. 

9.  Pin  any  other  winged  insects  you   have  that 
are  large  enough    to  be  pinned,  remembering    that 
except  in  case  of  beetles  the  insects 
should    be    pinned     through    the 
middle  of  the  thorax. 

10.  If  there  remain  some  in- 
sects that  are  too  small  to  be 
pinned,  they  should  be  mounted 
on  cardboard  points,  as  described 
on  page  298. 

11.  Count  the  legs  on  each 
specimen  in  your  collection.     (It 

is  supposed  that  you  have  only  winged  specimens.) 
How  many  legs  do  winged  insects  have? 

The  shrilling  locust  slowly  sheathes 

His  dagger  voice,  and  creeps  away 
Beneath  the  brooding  leaves  where  breathes 

The  zephyr  of  the  dying  day  : 
One  naked  star  has  waded  through 
The  purple  shallows  of  the  night. 
And  faltering  as  falls  the  dew 
It  drips  its  misty  light. 
O'er  garden  blooms, 
On  tides  of  musk. 
The  beetle  booms  adown  the  glooms 
And  bumps  along  the  dusk. 

The  katydid  is  rasping  at 

The  silence  from  the  tangled  broom : 
On  drunken  wings  the  flitting  bat 

Goes  staggering  athwart  the  gloom : 
The  toadstool  bulges  through  the  weeds ; 

And  lavishly  to  left  and  right 
The  fireflies,  like  golden  seeds, 

Are  sown  about  the  night. 


THE    SECOND   COLLECTING   TRIP. 


33 


O'er  slumb'rous  blooms. 
On  floods  of  musk, 
The  beetle  booms  adown  the  glooms 
And  bumps  along  the  dusk. 

Jiunes  Whitcomb  Riley. "^ 

LESSON    XII. 

THE    SECOND    COLLECTING    TRIP. 

1.  Review  carefully  the  directions  on  page  28. 

2.  On  this  excursion  the  pupils  should  collect  any 
true  insects — that  is,  those  having  only  six  feet — that 
they  may  find  ;  but  the  especial  object  of  the  excur- 


FlG.  II. — Nymph  of  Melanoplus^ 
first  stage.     (After  Emerton.) 


Fig.  12. — Nymph  of  Melanoplus, 
second  stage.     (After  Emerton.) 


Fig.  13. — Nymph  of  Melanoplus, 
third  stage.     (After  Emerton.) 


Fig.  14. — Nymph  of  Melanoplus, 
fourth  stage.     (After  Emerton.) 


sion  is  to  get  a  set  of  specimens  illustrating  the 
growth  of  either  crickets  or  locusts  or  bugs.  Select 
whichever  of  these  is  most  common,  and  get  as  com- 


*  From  Old-fashioned  Roses,  by  permission  of  the  Bowen-Merrill  Co. 


34 


INSECT    LIFE. 


plete  a  series  as  possible  representing  the  changes 
from  the  very  young  insect  without  any  wings, 
through  the  different  stages  of  wing-growth  up  to 
the  adult  insect. 

The  accompanying  figures  (Figs.  11-16)  represent 
the  transformations  of  a  common  locust.     Note  that 


Fig.  15. — Nymph  of  Mzlanoplus^  Fig.  i6. — Melanoplus^  adult, 

fifth  stage.     (After  Emerton.) 

the  figures  of  the  younger  stages  are  enlarged.  The 
hair  line  represents  in  each  case  the  length  of  the 
insect. 

LESSON  XIII. 

INCOMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS. 

Nearly  all  insects  undergo  great  changes  in  form 
while  getting  their  growth.  Thus,  caterpillars  in 
time  become  butterflies  or  millers ;  grubs  when 
fully  developed  are  beetles;  and  maggots  are  the 
young  of  two-winged  flies. 

In  the  case  of  butterflies,  millers,  beetles,  and 
two-winged  flies,  the  fully  developed  insects  bear 
but  little  resemblance  in  form  to  the  3^oung.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  find  two  adult  insects  that  differ 
more  in  form  than  do  a  butterfly  and  the  caterpiUar 
from  which  it  was  developed.  But  in  the  case  of 
certain  other  insects,  the  changes  undergone  during 
the  life  of  the  insect  are  not  nearly  so  great  as  with 


INCOMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS. 


35 


these.  Thus  the  young  locust  resembles  the  adult 
in  form  to  a  great  extent,  except  that  it  lacks  wings ; 
and  the  same  thing  is  true  of  crickets,  bugs,  and 
many  other  insects. 

Those  insects  which,  like  butterflies,  millers,  bee- 
tles, and  flies,  undergo  a  complete  change  of  form 
while  getting  their  growth  are  said  to  undergo  a 
complete  metamorphosis. 

Insects  which,  like  locusts,  crickets,  and  bugs,  do 
not  change  greatly  in  form  except  by  the  gradual 
growth  of  wings  are  said  to  undergo  an  incomplete 
metaynor pilosis. 

Let  us  study  more  carefully  the  changes  of  an 
insect  with  an  incomplete  metamorphosis. 

1.  Pin  the  specimens  that  were  collected  on  the 
last  excursion.  If  some  are  too  small  to  pin,  mount 
them  on  cardboard  points. 

2.  Select  those  that  were  collected  to  illustrate 
the  changes  in  form  from  the  very  young  insect 
without  any  wings  through  the  different  stages  of 
wing-growth  up  to  the  adult  insect. 

3.  Determine  how  many  stages  of  growth  are 
represented  by  these,  and  place  together  the  speci- 
mens illustrating  each  stage.  The  young  of  insects 
that  undergo  an  incomplete  metamorphosis  are 
termed  nymphs. 

4.  Make  an  outline  drawing  of  the  thorax  and 
wings,  when  they  are  present,  of  each  stage.  Draw 
either  the  dorsal  or  a  side  view,  whichever  will  show 
best  the  development  of  the  wings. 


36 


INSECT   LIFE. 


LESSON   XIV. 

MOLTING. 

1.  Take  a  locust  that  has  been  killed  by  being 
placed  in  a  cyanide  bottle  or  in  alcohol  and  cut  the 
abdomen  in  two,  near  the  middle  of  it. 

2.  Observe  that  the  hard  parts  of  the  body  are  on 
the  outside,  and  that  there  is  no  internal  skeleton,  as 
in  our  own  bodies. 

This  fact  makes  necessary  a  peculiar  feature  in 
the  growth  of  insects  and  of  the  other  animals  that 
are  closely  related  to  them.  The 
body  of  an  insect  is  inclosed  in  a 
firm  case,  which,  as  it  does  not  in- 
crease in  size,  becomes  too  tight  for 
the  insect  as  the  insect  grows.  To 
meet  this  difficulty  the  outer  hard 
layer  of  the  skin  is  shed.  The  inner 
soft  layer  of  the  skin  then  stretches 
so  as  to  accommodate  the  increased 
size  of  the  insect  ;  later  this  soft 
skin,  which  is  now  on  the  outside, 
becomes  hard,  so  as  to  serve  as  a 
protection  to  the  insect.  In  time 
this  skin  also  becomes  too  tight,  but 
another  soft  skin  has  been  formed 
beneath  it,  and  the  hard  skin  can  be 
shed  like  the  other, 
of    sheddinof    the    skin   is    termed 


Fig.  Ty.  —  The  cast 
skin  of  a  nymph 
of  a  dragon-fly. 


This   process 
molting. 

Insects  differ  greatly  as  to  the  number  of  times 
that  they   molt ;   some  pass  through  only  three  or 


OBSERVATION   OF   INCOMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS. 


37 


four  molts,  while  others  shed  their  skin  twenty  times 
or  more. 

It  is  at  the  time  of  molting  that  changes  in  the 
form  of  the  body  take  place. 

Fig.  17  represents  the  cast  skin  of  a  nymph  of  a 
dragon-fly. 

LESSON   XV. 

OBSERVATION    OF    INCOMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS. 

1 .  Collect  a  considerable  number — fifteen  or  twenty 
or  more — of  nymphs  of  locusts  or  crickets,  and  place 
them  in  a  breeding  cage.  See  page  327  for  directions 
for  making  inexpensive  breeding  cages. 

2.  Put  a  sod  of  growing  grass  in  the  cage  for  the 
insects  to  feed  upon,  and  replace  it  with  a  fresh  one 
when  necessary. 

3.  Endeavor  to  rear  the  nymphs,  and  make  notes 
on  their  changes. 

4.  Examine  the  cage  daily,  and  when  cast  skins 
are  found,  study  them  and  preserve  specimens  for 
your  collection. 

5.  Preserve  a  specimen  of  each  of  the  nymph 
stages,  and  label  it  with  the  date  on  which  it  was 
taken. 

6.  Observe  that,  although  the  changes  between 
the  different  nymph  stages  are  slight,  the  change  be- 
tween the  last  nymph  stage  and  the  adult  is  a  marked 
one,  there  being  a  great  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
wings  at  this  time. 


38  INSECT   LIFE. 

THE   GRASSHOPPER   AND    THE   CRICKET. 

Green  little  vaulter  in  the  sunny  grass, 

Catching  your  heart  up  at  the  feel  of  June,  . 

Sole  voice  that's  heard  amid  the  lazy  noon. 
When  even  the  bees  lag  at  the  summoning  brass ; 
And  you,  warm  little  housekeeper,  who  class 

With  those  who  think  the  candles  come  too  soon, 

Loving  the  fire,  and  with  your  tricksome  tune 
Nick  the  glad  silent  moments  as  they  pass  ; 
Oh,  sweet  and  tiny  cousins,  that  belong 

One  to  the  fields,  the  other  to  the  hearth. 
Both  have  your  sunshine ;  both,  though  small,  are  strong 

At  your  clear  hearts  ;  and  both  were  sent  on  earth 
To  sing  in  thoughtful  ears  this  natural  song  : 

Indoors  and  out,  summer  and  winter — Mirth. 

Leigh  Hunt. 

LESSON   XVL 

OBSERVATION    OF    COMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS    AND 
DEFINITION    OF    TERMS. 

And  what's  a  butterfly  ?     At  best, 

He's  but  a  caterpillar,  drest. — John  Gay. 

1.  Collect  some  caterpillars,  and,  keeping  them 
alive,  put  them  in  a  breeding  cage  to  rear.  See 
pages  327  to  330  for  directions  for  making  breeding 
cages. 

2.  Keep  the  caterpillars  supplied  with  food,  giv- 
ing them  the  same  kind  of  plant  as  that  on  which 
they  were  found,  and  keep  only  one  kind  of  cater- 
pillar in  a  single  breeding  cage.  Most  of  the  com- 
mon hairy  caterpillars  found  running  over  the  surface 
of  the  ground  will  feed  on  grass  and  many  other 
plants,  but  other  caterpillars  will  starve  if  not  fed  on 
their  proper  food  plant. 


OBSERVATION   OF   COMPLETE    METAMORPHOSIS. 


39 


!NOTE. — Among  the  more  available  kinds  of  caterpillars  for  use  in 
this  lesson  are  the  following  :  The  common  green  cabbage-worms  ;  the 
green  worm,  ringed  with  black  and  spotted  with  yellow,  that  eats  the 
leaves  of  caraway  ;  and  the  large  yellow  and  black  one  found  on  milk- 
weed. The  transformations  of  each  of  these  can  be  observed  in  a  com- 
paratively short  time  if  the  study  begins  early  enough  in  the  season. 
The  autumn  broods  of  the  first  two  pass  the  winter  in  the  pupa  state. 

3.  Begin  a  series  of  notes  on  each  kind  of  cater- 
pillar under  observation,  giving  each  a  number  and 
numbering  the  notes  to  correspond.  (See  Part  II, 
Chapter  III.)  Begin  each  note  with  the  date  on 
which  it  was  made.  Record  everything  that  you 
observe  regarding  the  habits  and  transformations  of 


Fig,  18. — Larva  and  pupa  of  a  butterfly. 

the  insects.     Try  to  observe  the  molting  of  the  in- 
sects and  each  of  the  transformations. 

4.  All  caterpillars  hatch  from  eggs.  If  you  suc- 
ceed in  rearing  adult  insects  and  will  keep  some  of 
them  caged  for  a  time  you  may  be  able  to  get  eggs. 


40 


INSECT    LIFE, 


But  many  insects  will  not  lay  in  confinement.  They 
are  more  apt  to  lay  in  confinement  if  caged  with  a 
growing  food  plant  of  the  larva. 

5.  Caterpillars  and  the  corresponding  stage  of 
other  insects  with  a  complete  metamorphosis  are  called 
larvcE.     The  singular  form  of  this  word  is  larva. 

6.  When  a  larva  is  full  grown  it  molts  its  skin 
and  appears  in  a  very  different  form.  This  third 
stage  (the  ^g^  being  the  first  and  the  larva  the  sec- 
ond) is  called  \h^  pupa.  The  plural  of  pupa  is  pupce. 
In  Fig.  18  there  are  represented  two  larvae  on  the 
upper  edge  of  a  fragment  of  a  leaf  and  a  pupa  sus- 
pended from  the  lower  edge.  The  pupse  of  butter- 
flies are  sometimes 
called  chrysalids.^ 

7.  Some  larvae 
before  changing  to 
the  pupa  state  spin 
about  the  body  a 
silken  case  within 
which      the       pupa 

-A  large  cocoon  within  a  rolled  leaf.     State  is  paSSCd.  Such 

a  case  is  called  a 
cocoon.  Sometimes  a  leaf  is  fastened  about  the  cocoon 
(Fig.  19) ;  and  some  hairy  caterpillars  make  their 
cocoons  largely  of  their  own  hair,  fastening  it  to- 
gether with  a  thin  layer  of  silk. 

8.  Following  the  pupa  state  is  the  adult  or  imago 
state. 


Fig.  ic 


*  There  are  two  forms  of  this  word :  first,  chrysalid,  with  the  plural 
chrysalids ;  and,  second,  chrysalis,  with  the  plural  chrysalides.  The 
singular  form  of  the  second  and  the  plural  form  of  the  first  are  in  more 
common  use. 


HTOM    M^O  l/QT    3HT— .II  staj^ 


Plate  II.— THE    TOMATO-WORM    MOTH. 

Phlegethontius  celus. 


Plate   II. 


BEETLES    OR   COLEOPTERA.  41 


LESSON  XVII. 

REVIEW    OF    TERMS    USED    IN     DESCRIBING     THE     METAMOR- 
PHOSES   OF    INSECTS. 

Kinds  of  Metamorphosis.  Names  of  Stages. 

/.  Development  without  metamorphosis. 

This  has  not  been  described  in  these      Egg. 

lessons,  and  it  occurs  only  in  a  single  \  Immature  insect. 

order   of  insects,  the   Thysanura  (see      Adult. 

page  63). 

[Egg. 
II.  Incomplete  7netamorp hosts.  <  Nymph  (several  stages). 

(^  Adult  or  ijnago. 

Egg. 

larva. 

Pupa.      (The    pupa    is 
sometimes      inclosed 
in  a  cocoon^ 
^  Adult  or  imago. 


III.   Complete  metamorphosis. 


LESSON   XVIII. 

BEETLES  OR  COLEOPTERA  (Co-le-op'te-ra). 

While  the  pupils  are  observing  the  development 
of  the  insects  in  their  breeding  cages,  which  will 
probably  require  a  long  time,  the  work  of  making  a 
collection  can  be  continued. 

1.  Collect  as  many  kinds  of  beetles  as  you  can 
and  mount  them  as  directed  in  Lesson  XL  Beetles 
can  be  found  under  stones  and  pieces  of  wood  lying 
on  the  ground,  under  the  loose  bark  of  dead  trees, 
logs,  and  stumps,  and  on  the  foliage  of  plants. 

2.  The  beetles,  of  which  there  are  many  thousand 
kinds,  constitute  what  is  termed  by  naturalists  an 
Order.  There  are  several  orders  of  insects  ;  the  one 
composed  of  beetles  is  named  the  Coleoptera.     This 


^2  INSECT    LIFE. 

name  is  from  two  Greek  words :  one,  kolcos,  meaning 
a  sheath,  and  the  other, //^r^,  meaning  wings.  It  re- 
fers to  the  fact  that  in  this  order  in  place  of  the  front 
wings  there  are  two  horny  sheaths  which  cover  the 
hind  wings. 

3.  Prepare  a  label  like  that  given  below. 


4.  Pin  this  label  into  the  upper  left-hand  corner 
of  your  case,  and  arrange  your  beetles  below  the 
label  in  rows  extending  from  left  to  right,  putting 
only  one  kind  of  beetle  in  a  row. 

5.  As  you  collect  more  beetles  place  them  with 
these,  putting  each  kind  in  its  proper  row. 

6.  Select  one  of  the  larger  beetles  in  your  collec- 
tion and  make  a  drawing  representing  the  dorsal 
view  of  it. 

LESSON  XIX. 

THE     ORDER    COLEOPTERA     (CONTINUED). 

1.  Carry  a  small  cyanide  bottle  in  your  pocket, 
and,  whenever  you  have  an  opportunity,  collect  any 
beetles  that  you  can  find,  and  add  them  to  your  col- 
lection. 

2.  Observe  that  in  each  kind  of  beetle  the  wings 
are  always  of  the  same  size.  The  wings  of  these  in- 
sects are  not  gradually  developed  as  they  are  with 
locusts,  crickets,  and  bugs ;  but  the  young  of  beetles 


THE    ORDER   COLEOPTERA.  43 

are  grubs  which  undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis 
in  the  course  of  their  development. 

3.  Select  one  of  the  larger  beetles,  and  examine  its 
wing-covers,  or  elytra,  as  they  are  called.  Remove 
them,  and  note  their  structure.  How  do  the  elytra 
of  beetles  differ  from  the  front  wings  of  locusts? 

4.  Study  the  hind  wings.  How  does  the  folding 
of  the  hind  wings  of  a  beetle  differ  from  that  of  the 
hind  wings  of  a  locust  ? 

5.  Mount  the  elytra  and  hind  wings  of  the  beetle 
on  a  card. 

6.  Study  the  mouth-parts  of  the  beetle,  dissecting 
them  out,  and  mounting  them  on  a  card  as  was  done 
with  the  mouth -parts  of  a  locust  in  Lesson  III. 
Label  each  of  the  mouth-parts. 

7.  Remove  some  of  the  upper  rows  of  beetles  in 
your  case  so  as  to  make  room  for  the  two  cards  just 
prepared,  and  place  the  cards  immediately  below  the 
label  for  the  order.  Then  rearrange  the  beetles  be, 
low  the  cards. 

8.  We  have  now  observed  the  more  important 
characteristics  of  the  order  Coleoptera  or  beetles, 
which  are  as  follows  : 

Order  Coleoptera. —  The  members  of  this  order  have  a 
pair  of  horny  wing- covers,  called  elytra,  zvhich  meet  iji  a 
straight  line  down  the  back,  and  beneath  which  there  is  a 
siftgle  pair  of  membranous  wings.  The  mouth-parts  are 
formed  for  biting.     The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 


44  INSECT   LIFE. 

LESSON   XX. 

THE    TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    A    BEETLE. 

1.  Find  a  potato  field  infested  with  the  Colorado 
potato-beetle.  Fig.  20  represents  the  adult  of  this 
insect. 

2.  If  this  species  is  not  in  your  collection,  collect 
some  of  the  adult  beetles  for  it. 

3.  Search  for  the  larva  of  this  potato- 
beetle.  It  is  a  thick,  plump  grub,  strong- 
ly arched  above,  and  of  a  pale  yellow 
color,  with  two  rows  of  black  spots  on 
each  side. 

4.  Search  also  for  the  eggs  of  this  in- 
sect. These  are  yellow  in  color  and  are  laid  in 
clusters  on  the  leaves  of  the  potato. 

5.  Take  the  eggs  and  larva  to  the  school  alive  and 
put  them  in  a  breeding  cage.  Keep  the  larvae  sup- 
plied with  fresh  potato  leaves  and  watch  their  de- 
velopment, keeping  notes  on  it.  Put  a  few  of  the 
eggs  and  larvae  in  alcohol  and  preserve  them  in  your 
collection. 

6.  When  full  grown,  the  larvse  go  into  the  ground 
to  transform  ;  there  should  on  this  account  be  a  layer 
of  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  cage. 

7.  After  the  larvae  have  gone  into  the  ground  to 
transform,  some  of  the  cocoons  should  be  dug  up  and 
preserved  in  the  collection. 

8.  When  the  beetles  begin  to  emerge  from  the 
ground,  dig  up  some  of  the  cocoons  and  remove 
pupas  from  them  for  the  collection. 

9.  Arrange  the  specimens  of  this  species  in  your 


A   COLLECTING   TRIP.  45 

collection   in   the   following   order,  eggs,  larv^,  co- 
coons, pupge,  adults,  and  label  each  group. 


LESSON   XXI. 

A    COLLECTING    TRIP. 

1.  Review  carefully  the  directions  and  sugges- 
tions given  for  the  first  collecting  trip  in  Lesson  X. 

2.  The  special  object  of  this  trip  is  to  learn  to 
collect  insects  by  sweeping  grass  and  beating  the 
foliage  of  herbs  and  shrubs  with  an  insect  net.  See 
page  290  for  directions  for  the  use  of  insect  nets. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  procure  the  speci- 
mens in  as  good  condition  as  possible.  Empty  your 
net  frequently,  so  that  the  specimens  shall  not  be  in- 
jured by  the  sweeping  or  beating. 

LESSON   XXIL 

MOUNTING    OF    SPECIMENS. 

If  the  sweeping  and  beating  of  the  last  trip  were 
successful,  there  will  be  considerable  work  to  be 
done  in  mounting  specimens.  Before  doing  this  read 
pages  297  to  299,  and  then  endeavor  to  mount  your 
specimens  in  as  good  condition  as  possible  and  pre- 
serve them  for  future  study. 

LESSON  XXIII. 

ON    COLLECTING    BUTTERFLIES. 

Owing  to  the  dustlike  covering  with  which  but- 
terflies and  moths,  or  millers,  are  clothed,  and  which 


46 


INSECT    LIFE. 


is  easily  injured,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  special 
study  of  the  methods  of  collecting  these  insects ;  for 
if  the  specimens  are  not  handled  properly,  they  will 
be  of  very  little  use  for  study.  We  will  first  study 
the  collecting  of  butterflies. 

1.  For  collecting  butterflies  an  insect  net  and  a 
collecting  box  are  necessary.  The  pupils  doubtless 
have  insect  nets  before  this  lesson  is  reached ;  the 
collecting  boxes  can  be  made  of  empty  cigar  boxes, 
as  described  on  page  287. 

2.  In  addition  to  the  net  and  collecting  box  a 
bottle  of  chloroform  with  a  brush  fitted  into  the  cork 
(Fig.  21)  is  very  desirable,  although  not  absolutely 
necessary. 

3.  It  is  seldom  best  to  attempt  to  run  down  a 
butterfly  and  catch  it  on  the  wing.  Fol- 
low the  insect  quietly  until  it  alights,  and 
catch  it  while  at  rest. 

4.  The  removal  of  the   insect  from  the 
net  should   be  done  with  very  great  care, 
for  here  lies  the  greatest  danger  of  injury 
to  the  specimen. 
Fig.  21.  ^^  the  butterfly  is  a  small  one,  it  can 

be  taken  from  the  net  by  placing  the  mouth 
of  an  open  cyanide  bottle  over  it ;  in  this  way  touch- 
ing the  specimen  with  the  fingers  is  avoided. 

If  the  specimen  is  too  large  for  this,  the  net 
should  be  held  in  such  a  way  that  the  insect  can  not 
flutter  and  thus  injure  its  wings.  Try  to  have  it 
come  to  rest  with  its  wings  folded  over  its  back,  for 
the  lower  side  of  the  wings  are  not  so  easily  injured  as 
is  the  upper  side.  Then  take  the  fold  of  the  net  con- 
taining the  butterfly  between  the  thumb  and  finger 


ON  SPREADING  BUTTERFLIES. 


47 


of  one  hand  and  pinch  the  thorax  of  the  insect.  This 
can  be  done  in  such  a  way  as  to  kill  the  insect  at 
once  without  crushing  the  specimen.  It  can  then  be 
removed  from  the  net  and  pinned  and  placed  into 
the  collecting  box. 

If  the  collector  has  a  bottle  of  chloroform  and 
brush,  as  soon  as  the  insect  is  at  rest  in  a  fold  of  the 
net  it  can  be  killed  by  wetting  its  thorax  with  chloro- 
form. This  is  done  by  putting  the  wet  brush  on  the 
net  where  it  rests  against  the  thorax  of  the  insect. 
The  butterfly  can  then  be  removed  and  pinned  into 
the  collecting  box. 

5.  Read  paragraph  on  folded  papers  for  butter- 
flies, page  287. 

6.  Go  into  the  field  and  collect  some  butterflies. 
Try  to  secure  them  in  perfect  condition  rather  than 
to  try  to  get  a  large  number. 

7.  If  you  have  time  to  spread  the  butterflies  when 
you  return  from  the  field,  pass  at  once  to  the  next 
lesson;  but  if  not,  put  the  specimens  on  damp  sand 
in  a  tightly  closed  jar  or  box  and  leave  them  till  the 
following  day.  See  paragraph  on  relaxing  insects, 
page  305. 

LESSON   XXIV. 

ON    SPREADING    BUTTERFLIES. 

Read  the  directions  for  making  spreading  boards 
and  for  spreading  insects  on  pages  303  to  305,  and 
then  spread  the  butterflies  that  you  have  collected. 


^8  INSECT   LIFE. 

LESSON  XXV. 

THE    STRUCTURE    OF    BUTTERFLIES. 

1.  Take  a  butterfly  that  has  just  been  killed  or 
one  that  has  been  relaxed  in  a  damping-  jar,  and  pin 
it  so  that  it  can  be  handled  without  rubbing  the 
colors  from  the  wings. 

2.  Examine  the  compound  eyes  with  a  lens  or 
microscope,  and  make  a  drawing  illustrating  the 
structure  of  the  surface  ;  only  a  small  portion  of  one 
eye  need  be  represented,  but  show  this  greatly  en- 
larged. 

3.  Observe  on  the  lower  side  of  the  head  two 
forward-projecting  organs.  These  are  the  feelers  of 
the  lower  lip  or  labial  palpi. 

4.  Observe  an  organ  that  is  coiled  up  between 
the  labial  palpi.  If  the  butterfly  has  been  recently 
killed  or  is  thoroughly  relaxed,  this  organ  can  be 
straightened  out  by  using  a  pin.  It  is  the  sucking- 
tube  by  means  of  which  the  insect  extracts  nectar 
from  flowers.  It  is  composed  of  two  parallel  parts 
closely  united,  but  with  a  channel  between  them 
through  which  the  nectar  is  sucked.  These  two 
parts  are  the  maxillae,  which  have  become  greatly 
developed  and  modified  to  fit  them  for  sucking. 
The  other  mouth-parts,  except  the  labial  palpi,  are 
poorly  developed. 

5.  Remove  the  head  and  gum  it  with  the  maxillas 
uncoiled  to  a  card  which  is  large  enough  to  receive 
the  two  wings  of  one  side  also. 

6.  Remove  the  two  wings  of  one  side  and  gum 
them  to  the  card  with  the  head. 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   BUTTERFLIES. 


49 


7.  Study  the  clothing-  of  the  wings.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  use  at  least  a  lens  for  this  ;  if  there  is  a  micro- 
scope in  the  school  it  should  be  used  for  this  study. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  dust  covering  the  wings  and 
body  is  composed  of  scales,  which  are  of  regular 
form  ;  and  that  in  butter- 
flies these  scales  are  ar- 
ranged in  regular  order 
upon  the  wings.  Fig.  22 
represents  part  of  a  wing 


of  a  butterfly  greatly 
magnified.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  figure  the 
membrane  of  the  wing  is 
represented  with  the 
scales  removed. 

8.  The  butterflies,  to- 
gether with  the  moths,  or 


Fig.  22.— Part  of  win^  of  butterfly, 
greatly  magnified. 


millers,  and  the  skippers,  which  are  insects  that  re- 
semble butterflies,  constitute  an  order  w^hich  is 
named  the  Lepidoptera.  This  name  is  from  two 
Greek  words  :  lepis,  a  scale,  and  pterojt,  a  wing. 
It  refers  to  the  scaly  covering  of  the  wings  and 
body. 

9.  Make  a  copy  of  the  following  label,  and  fasten 
it  in  your  collection  above  the  specimens  of  Lepi- 
doptera : 


1 

so 


INSECT    LIFE. 


lo.  Place  the   card  bearing  the  head  and  wings 
of  a  butterfl}'  immediately  below  this  label. 


LESSON   XXVI. 

ON    COLLECTING    MOTHS. 

1.  The  fact  that  moths,  or  millers  as  they  are 
often  called,  do  not  fold  their  wings  above  the  body 
like  butterflies  makes  it  impracticable  to  kill  speci- 
mens by  pinching  the  thorax.  Very  large  specimens 
can  be  killed  by  chloroform,  as  described  in  Lesson 
XXIII ;  but  most  specimens  should  be  taken  from 
the  net  by  placing  the  mouth  of  an  open  cyanide 
bottle  over  them.  Never  touch  a  specimen  with  the 
fingers  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

2.  Do  not  carry  moths  in  a  cyanide  bottle  with 
other  insects.  It  is  best  to  have  a  separate  bottle  for 
Lepidoptera,  for  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  rub- 
bing against  other  insects ;  and  the  specimens  of 
other  insects  w^ill  be  soiled  by  the  scales  from  the 
butterflies  or  moths. 

3.  Many  moths  can  be  collected  in  the  fields  by 
day,  but  much  larger  numbers  can  be  taken  at  night 
at  lights  or  at  sweetened  baits.  Read  the  sections 
on  sugaring  and  on  collecting  at  lights  on  pages  292 
to  293. 

4.  Collect  as  many  kinds  of  moths  as  possible, 
taking  especial  pains  to  get  the  specimens  in  good 
condition. 

5.  Carefully  spread  one  or  more  specimens  of  each 
kind  ;  other  specimens  may  be  simply  pinned  and  left 
till  winter,  when  they  can  be  relaxed  and  spread. 


CHAPTER    III, 

THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    INSECTS    AND    THEIR    NEAR 
RELATIVES. 


N  the  course  of  the  lessons  in  the  preced- 
ing chapter,  a  beginning  was  made  in 
the  classification  of  insects.  The  sub- 
ject can  now  be  taken  up  in  a  more 
systematic  manner.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, the  purpose  of  this  book  to  car- 
ry the  classification  of  insects  further 
than  to  the  orders,  although  in  the 
chapters  following  this  a  few  easily 
recognized  families  will  be  studied.  It  is  believed 
that  it  is  better  for  the  pupils  that  are  beginning  this 
study  to  devote  the  greater  part  of  their  time  to 
the  study  of  the  structure  and  habits  of  insects ; 
later,  the  classification  can  be  carried  farther  with 
the  aid  of  more  advanced  manuals  written  for  that 
purpose. 

The  collector  of  insects  is  sure  to  meet  many 
small  animals  that,  although  not  true  insects,  are 
closely  allied  to  them.  It  is  important,  therefore, 
that  the  characteristics  of  these  near  relatives  of  in- 
sects should  be  pointed  out,  which  we  will  briefly  do, 
before  discussing  the  orders  of  insects. 

51 


52 


INSECT    LIFE, 


The  Classes  of  the  Branch  Arthropoda. 

In  the  study  of  the  parts  of  a  locust  (see  Lesson 
VI)  it  was  learned  that  the  body  of  an  insect  is  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  more  or  less  similar  rings  or  seg- 
ments joined  together.  This  fact  is  also  true  of  the 
bodies  of  certain  other  animals  that  are  not  insects  ; 
thus,  if  the  body  of  a  scorpion,  a  centipede,  or  a  lob- 
ster be  examined,  it  will  be  found  to  resemble  that  of 
an  insect  in  this  respect.  There  is  another  charac- 
teristic in  which  these  animals  resemble  insects — 
namely,  some  of  the  segments  of  the  body  bear 
jointed  legs. 

All  the  animals  possessing  these  two  character- 
istics are  classed  together  as  the  branch  Arthropoda 
{Ar-throp' o-dd)  of  the  animal  kingdom,  the  term 
branch  being  applied  to  each  of  the  principal  divi- 
sions of  the  animal  kingdom. 

A  similar  segmented  form  of  the  body  is  char- 
acteristic of  worms,  but  these  are  distinguished  from 
the  Arthropoda  by  the  absence  of  legs.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  many  animals  commonly  called 
w^orms,  as  the  tomato-worm,  apple-worm,  etc.,  are 
not  true  worms,  but  are  the  larvse  of  insects.  The 
angle  worm  is  the  most  familiar  example  of  a  true 
worm. 

The  principal  divisions  of  a  branch  of  the  animal 
kingdom  are  called  classes.  The  more  common  rep- 
resentatives of  the  branch  Arthropoda  are  distributed 
among  four  classes.  These  are  the  Crustacea,  the 
Arachnida,  the  Myriapoda,  and  the  Hexapoda.  The 
last  of  these  comprises  the  insects,  the  first  three  the 
near  relatives  of  insects. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSECTS.  53 

The  following  table  will  enable  the  student  to  dis- 
tinguish the  classes  of  the  Arthropoda."^ 

TABLE    OF    CLASSES    OF    THE    ARTHROPODA. 

A.  With  two  pairs  of  antennse  and  at  least  five  pairs  of  legs.     Aquatic 

animals  breathing  by  gills.     Page  53 Crustacea. 

AA.  With  one  pair  of  antennae  or  with  none.     Air-breathing  animals. 
The  number  of  legs  varies  from  six  to  many. 

B.  Without  antennae  and  with  four  pairs  of  legs,  although  the  maxillary 
palpi  are  often  leglike  in  form,  making  the  animal  appear  to  have  five 

pairs  of  legs.    Page  55 , Arachnida. 

BB.  With  antenna. 
C.  With  more  than  three  pairs  of  legs  ;  and  without  wings.     Page 

57 M  YRIAPODA. 

CC.  With  only  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  usually  with  wings  in  the 
adult  state.    Page  58 Hexapoda. 

Class  Crustacea  (Crus-ta'ce-a). 
The  Crustaceans  {Crus-ta' ce-ans^. 

The  most  familiar  illustrations  of  the  Crustacea 
are  the  crayfishes,  the  lobsters,  the  shrimps,  and  the 

*  The  following  is  the  method  of  using  the  analytical  tables  given  in 
this  book  :  Read  carefully  the  statement  of  characteristics  given  opposite 
A  and  AA  respectively,  and  by  examining  the  animal  to  be  classified  de- 
termine which  is  true  of  this  animal.  This  will  indicate  in  which  division 
of  the  table  the  name  of  the  group  to  which  the  animal  belongs  is  to  be 
looked  for.  If  this  division  of  the  table  is  subdivided,  pass  to  B  and  BB 
(also  to  BBB  if  it  occurs)  in  this  division  and  determine  in  a  like  manner 
under  which  the  animal  belongs.  Continue  in  this  way,  passing  to  the 
letters  C,  D,  E,  etc.,  in  regular  order  till  the  name  of  the  group  is 
reached.  Then  turn  to  the  page  indicated  and  read  the  description  of 
the  group  given  there,  comparing  the  specimens  with  the  description. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  an  analytical  table  is  merely  an  aid  to 
the  determination  of  groups.  As  the  groups  that  we  recognize  are  not 
always  sharply  limited  in  nature,  we  can  not  expect  to  be  able  in  every 
case  to  find  characters  that  will  serve  to  distinctly  separate  them  in  a  table. 
Therefore  when  a  student  has  determined  by  the  aid  of  a  key  to  what 


54 


INSECT    LIFE. 


crabs.  Crayfishes  (Fig.  23)  abound  in  our  brooks, 
and  are  often  improperly  called  crabs.  The  lob- 
sters, the  shrimps,  and 
the  true  crabs  live  in- 
salt  water. 

The  Crustacea  are 
distinguished        from 
all      other    Arthro- 
pods by  having  two 
pairs     of     antennas 
and  by  their  mode 
of  respiration,  being 
the    only  ones   that 
breathe       by     true 
gills.      Many    insects 
live  in  water  and  are 
furnished     with     gill- 
like organs,  but  these 
are      tracheal       gills. 
True   gills  are  for   the   purification  of  blood,   while 
tracheal  gills  are  for  the  purification  of  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  air  ves- 
sels or  trachese  of  an 
insect.      The  former 
contains  a  large  num- 
ber of  blood  vessels, 
the    latter     a     large 
number  of  air  vessels. 
There  are   minute   Crustacea  common  in  ponds 
and  streams.     Three  of  the  more  abundant  of  these 


Fig.  23. — A  crayfish. 


Fig.  24. — Crustacea  :  a,  Cypris ; 
b,  Cyclops ;  c,  Daphnia. 


Fig.  25. 
A  sow-bug. 


group  a  species  seems  to  belong,  he  should  verify  this  determination 
by  a  study  of  the  characters  of  that  group  given  in  the  detailed  discussion 
of  it. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 


55 


are  shown  greatly  enlarged  in  Fig.  24 ;  they  fre- 
quently occur  in  aquaria  in  which  aquatic  plants  are 
growing.  The  sow-bugs  (Fig.  25)  are  also  Crustacea. 
They  live  about  water-soaked  wood  ;  with  these  only 
one  pair  of  antennae  are  well  developed. 

Class  Arachnida   (A-rach'ni-da). 
The  Arachnids  {A-rach'nids). 

To  this  class  belong  the  spiders,  scorpions,  har- 
vestmen,  mites,  and  certain  other  less  common  forms. 
These  animals  differ  from  the  other  classes  of  the 
branch  Arthropoda  in  having  no  antennse.  They 
have  four  pairs  of  legs  fitted  for  walking,  and  many 
of  them  have  very  large  maxillary  palpi,  which  re- 
semble legs.  The  head  and  thorax  are  closely 
united,  forming  a  region  which  is  called  the  ceph- 
alothorax  {ceph-a-lo-tho' rax).  These  characteristics  are 
easily  seen  in 
spiders  (Fig. 
26). 

The    most 
common    rep- 
resentatives  of 
the  class  Arach- 
nida  are    the 
spiders.    These 
are    extremely 

interesting  ani-  fig.  26.— a  spider. 

mals      on      ac- 
count   of   the   high    development    of    their   instinc- 
tive  powers.     An  account  of  the  habits  of  some  of 
the  common  species  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  Road- 
side Life. 


56 


INSECT    LIFE. 


The  harvestmen    (Fig.  27)  are  also  abundant  in 
most  parts  of  our  country.     These  leed  on  small  in- 


Fig.  27. — Aharvestman. 

sects,  especially  aphids,  and  are  perfectly  harmless. 

They  are  sometimes  called  ''grandfather  graybeards." 
Scorpions  (Fig.  28)  are  common  in  the  southern 
portions  of  the  United  States, 
but  are  not  found  in  the  North. 
They  feed  upon  spiders  and 
large  insects,  which  they  seize 
with  the  large  pincers  of  their 
palpi,  and  sting  to  death  with 
a  poison  sting,  w^hich  is  at  the 
hind  end  of  the  body. 

The   mites   are  mostly  very 
small.      They  differ  from  other 


Fig.  28, — A  scorpion. 


Fig.  29. — An  itch  mite  :  a,  from  below  ;  b, 
from  above. 


Arachnids  in  having   the   abdomen   fused    with  the 


cephalothorax  (Fi< 


Certain  velvety  red  species 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    INSECTS. 


57 


often  attract  attention  on  account  of  their  red  color, 
and  other  species  are  often  found  para- 
sitic on  insects.  The  annoying  para- 
sites that  are  known  as  ticks  (Fig.  30), 
and  which  are  common  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  our  country,  are  mites.  The 
sheep-tick,  however,  is  a  wingless  fly. 


Fig.      30.  —  The 
cattle-tick,  female. 


Class  Myriapoda  (Myr-i-ap'o-da). 

The  Myriapods  [Myr'i-a-pods). 

This  class  includes  the  centipedes  and  the  milli- 
pedes, both  of  which  are  commonly  called  thousand- 
legged  worms.  The  members  of  this  class  have  a 
distinct  head  which  bears  a  single    pair  of  antennas. 

The  body  is  long,  and 
consists  of  similar  seg- 
ments, which  are  not 
grouped  into  regions, 
and  each  segment  of 
the  body  bears  one  or 
two  pairs  of  legs. 
The  centipedes  (Fig.  31)  have  only  a  single  pair 
of  legs  to  each  segment.  Representatives  of  many 
species  of  these  are  common.  The  poison  glands 
open  through  the 
claws  of  the  first 
pair  of  legs,  which 
are  bent  forward 


Fig.  31. — A  centipede. 


Fig.  32.— a  millipede. 

The  centipedes 


so  as  to  act  with  the  mouth-parts, 
feed  on  insects. 

The  millipedes  (Fig.  32)  differ  from  the  centipedes 
in  having  two  pairs  of  legs  on  each  of  the  body  seg- 
ments except  the  first  three.      The  millipedes,  as  a 


58  INSECT    LIFE. 

rule,  live  in  damp  places,  and  feed  on  decaying  vege- 
table matter.  They  are  harmless,  except  that  occa- 
sionally they  feed  upon  growing  plants. 

Class  Hexapoda  (Hex-ap'o-da). 
The  Insects. 

Insects  differ  from  the  other  classes  of  the  Arthrop- 
oda  in  having  only  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  usually 
in  having  wings  in  the  adult  state.  The}^  have  a  sin- 
gle pair  of  antennas,  and  the  segments  of  the  body 
are  grouped  into  three  regions :  head,  thorax,  and 
abdomen. 

The  name  Hexapoda  is  from  two  Greek  words  : 
hex,  six,  and  pous,  foot.  Numerous  examples  of  in- 
sects are  figured  in  the  following  portions  of  this 
chapter. 

THE    ORDERS    OF    THE    CLASS    HEXAPODA. 

The  class  Hexapoda,  or  insects,  is  divided  into 
nineteen  orders.  In  our  Manual  for  the  Study  of  In. 
sects  these  orders  and  the  families  of  which  they  are 
composed  are  discussed  in  detail,  but  in  these  first 
lessons  we  can  only  briefly  refer  to  each  order.  The 
following  table  is  taken  from  the  Manual.  This 
table  of  orders  is  merely  intended  to  aid  the  pupil  in 
determining  to  which  of  the  orders  a  specimen  that 
he  is  examining  belongs.  No  effort  has  been  made  to 
indicate  in  the  table  the  relation  of  the  orders  to  each 
other. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   INSECTS. 


59 


TABLE     FOR     DETERMINING     THE     ORDERS     OF     HEXAPODA.* 

{^This  table  includes  only  adult  insects.) 

A.  Wingless  or  with  rudimentary  wings. 

B.  Mandibles  and  maxillae  retracted  within  the  cavity  of  the  head  so 

that  only  their  apices  are  visible.     Page  63 Thysanura. 

BB.  Mandibles  and  maxillae  more  or  less  prominent  and  fitted  for 
biting.     (See  BBB  also.) 
C.  Head  with  long,  trunklike  beak.     {Boreus.)     Page  78, 

Mecoptera. 
CC.   Head  not  prolonged  into  a  trunk. 

D.   Louselike  insects  of  small  size  ;  body  less  than  one  sixth  inch 
in  length. 
E.  Antennae  with   not    more    than    five   segments.     (Bird-lice.) 

Page  69 Mallophaga. 

EE.  Antennae  with  many  segments.     (Book-lice.)     Page  68. 

CORRODENTIA. 

DD.  Insects  of  various  forms,  but  not  louselike,  and,  except  in 
the  case  of  some  ants,  with  the  body  more  than  one  sixth  inch 
in  length. 

E.  Abdomen    with    short,    conical,    compressed,    many-jointed 
caudal  appendages.    {Cockroaches.)    Page  70, .  .Orthoptera. 
EE.  Abdomen  without  jointed  caudal  appendages. 

F.  Legs  fitted  for  jumping.     (  Wingtess  locusts,  grasshoppers, 

and  crickets.)     Page  70 Orthoptera. 

FF.  Legs  fitted  for  running. 

G.  Abdomen  broadly  joined  to  the  thorax. 
H.  Body  linear.     {Walking-sticksl)     Page  70. 

Orthoptera. 
HH.   Body  white  and  somewhat  antlike  in  form.     {Ter- 

mes.)     Page  67 Isopter A. 

HHH.  Body  neither  linear  nor  antlike  in  form.    (  Wing- 
less firefly  et  at)     Page  85 Coleoptera. 

GG.  Base  of  abdomen  strongly  constricted.     {A tits  et  at.). 

Page  85 Hymenoptera. 

BBB.  Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking. 

C.  Small  abnormal  insects  in  which  the  body  is   either  scalelike  or 
gall-like  in  form,  or  grublike  and  clothed  with  wax.     The  waxy 

*  See  note  at  bottom  of  page  53. 


6o  INSECT    LIFE. 

covering  may  be  in  the  form  of  powder,  of  large  tufts  or  plates,  of 
a  continuous  layer  or  of  a  thin  scale,  beneath  which  the  insect 

lives.     {Coccidce.)     Page  75 Hemiptera. 

CC.  Body  more  or  less  covered  with  minute  scales,  or  with  thick 
long  hairs.  Prothorax  not  free  (i.  e.,  closely  united  with  the  meso- 
thorax).       Mouth-parts    usually    consisting   of   a   long    "  tongue " 

rolled  beneath  the  head.     Page  80 Lepidoptera. 

CCC.  Body  naked,  or  with  isolated  or  bristlelike  hairs. 

D,  Prothorax  not  well  developed,  inconspicuous  or  invisible  from 
above.      Tarsi    five-jointed.      Mouth-parts    developed    into   an 

unjointed  trunk  ;  palpi  present.     Page  83 Diptera. 

DD.   Prothorax  well  developed. 

E.  Body  strongly  compressed  ;  tarsi  five-jointed,    {Fleas^    Page 

84 Siphonaptera. 

EE.  Body  not  compressed  ;  tarsi  one-,  two-,  or  three-jointed. 
F.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  bladderlike  or  hooflike  at  the  tip  ;  mouth 
parts  forming  a  triangular,  unjointed  beak  ;  palpi  present. 

Page  74 Physopoda. 

FF.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  not  bladderlike,  and  furnished  with 
one  or  two  claws  ;  mouth  parts  forming  a  slender,  usually 
jointed  beak  ;  palpi  apparently  wanting.     Page  75. 

Hemiptera. 
AA.  Winged,     (The  wing-covers,  elytra,  of  beetles  and  of  earwigs  are 
counted  as  wings  in  this  table,) 
B.  With  two  wings. 

C.  Wings  horny,  leathery,  or  parchmentlike. 

D,  Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking.     Wings  leathery,  shortened, 

or  membranous  at  the  tip.     Page  75 Hemiptera. 

DD.  Mouth-parts  formed  for  biting.     Jaws  distinct. 

E.    Wings   horny,    without   veins.       Hind   legs   not    fitted    for 

jumping.     Page  85 Coleoptera. 

EE,  Wings  parchmentlike,  with  a  network  of  veins.     Hind  legs 

fitted  for  jumping.     Page  70 Orthoptera. 

CC.  Wings  membranous. 

D.  Abdomen  with  caudal  filaments.     Mouth-parts  rudimentary. 

E.  Halteres  wanting.     Page  64 Ephemerida. 

EE.  Halteres  present  (males  of  Coccidce).     Page  75, 

Hemiptera. 
DD,  Abdomen  without   caudal   filaments,     Halteres  in  place  of 
second  wings.     Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking.     Page  83. 

Diptera. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    INSECTS.  6l 

BB.  With  four  wings.  .       , 

C.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  unlike  in  structure. 

D.  Front  wings  leathery  at  base,  and  membranous  at  tip,  often 
overlapping.     Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking.     Page  75. 

Hemiptera. 
DD.  Front  wings  of  same  texture  throughout. 

E.  Front  wings  horny  or  leathery,  being  veinless  wing  covers. 
{Elytm.) 

F.  Abdomen  with  caudal  appendages  in  form  of  movable  for- 
ceps.     Page  69 EUPLEXOPTERA. 

FF.  Abdomen  without  forceplike  appendages.     Page  85. 

COLEOPTERA, 

EE.  Front  wings  leathery  or  parchmentlike,  with  a  network  of 
veins. 

F.  Under  wings  not  folded.     Mouth-parts  formed  for  suck- 
ing.    Page  75 Hemiptera, 

FF.  Under  wings    folded   lengthwise.     Mouth-parts  formed 

for  biting.     Page  70 Orthoptera. 

CC.  The  two  pairs  of  wings  similar,  membranous. 

D.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  bladderlike  or  hooflike  at  the  tip.     Page  74. 

Physopoda. 
DD.  Last  joint  of  tarsi  not  bladderlike. 

E.  Wings  entirely  or  for  the  greater  part  clothed  with  scales. 

Mouth-parts  formed  for  sucking.     Page  80 Lepidoptera. 

EE.  Wings  naked,  transparent,  or  thinly  clothed  with  hairs. 
F.   Mouth-parts  arising  from  the  hinder  part   of  the  lower 
surface  of  the  head,  and  consisting  of  bristlelike  organs  in- 
closed in  a  jointed  sheath.     {Ho77ioptera.)     Page  75. 

Hemiptera. 
FF.  Mouth-parts  in  normal  position.     Mandibles  not  bristle- 
like. 

G.  Wings  net-veined,  with  many  veins  and  cross-veins. 
H.  Tarsi  consisting  of  less  than  five  segments. 

I.  Antennae  inconspicuous,  awl-shaped,  short,  and  slen- 
der. 

J.  First  and  second  pairs  of  wings  nearly  the  same 
length  ;  tarsi  three-jointed.    Page  65 . .  .Odonata. 

JJ.  Second  pair  of  wings  either  small  or  wanting  ; 
tarsi  four-jointed.     Page  64 Ephemerida. 

II.  Antennae    usually   conspicuous,    setiform,    filiform 
clavate,  capitate,  or  pectinate. 


62  INSECT    LIFE. 

J.   Tarsi  two-  or  three-jointed, 

K.  Second  pair  of  wings  the  smaller.     Page  68. 

CORRODENTIA. 

KK.  Second  pair  of  wings  broader,  or  at  least  of 
the  same  size  as  the  first  pair.     Page  66, 

Plecoptera. 
J  J,  Tarsi  four-jointed  ;  wings  equal.     Page  67. 

ISOPTERA. 
HH.  Tarsi  consisting  of  five  segments. 

I.  Abdomen   with   setiform,    many-jointed    anal    fila- 
ments.   {Certain  May-flies?)   Page  64.  .Ephemerida. 

II,  Abdomen  without  many-jointed  anal  filaments, 

J.  Head  prolonged  into  a  trunklike  beak.     Page  78. 

Mecoptera. 
JJ.  Head  not  prolonged  into  a  beak.     Page  77. 

Neuroptera. 
GG.  Wings  with  branching  veins  and  comparatively  few 
cross  veins,  or  veinless. 
H.  Tarsi  two-  or  three-jointed. 

I.  Posterior  wings  smaller  than  the  anterior.    Page  68. 

CORRODENTIA. 

II.  Posterior  wings  as  large  as  or  larger  than  the  ante- 
rior ones.     {Certain  stone-flies.)     Page  66. 

Plecoptera. 
HH.  Tarsi  four-  or  five-jointed. 

I.  Abdomen   with    setiform,   many-jointed    anal    fila- 
ments.    {Certain  May -flies?)     Page  64. 

Ephemerida. 

II,  Abdomen  without  many-jointed  anal  filaments. 

J.  Prothorax  horny.  First  wings  larger  than  the 
second,  naked  or  imperceptibly  hairy.  Second 
wings  without,  or  with  few,  usually  simple,  veins. 
Jaws  (mandibles)  well  developed.  Palpi  small. 
Page  85 Hymenoptera. 

JJ.  Prothorax  membranous  or,  at  the  most,  parch- 
mentlike. Second  wings  as  large  as  or  larger  than 
the  first,  folded  lengthwise,  with  many  branching 
veins.  First  wings  naked  or  thinly  clothed  with 
hair.  Jaws  (mandibles)  inconspicuous.  Palpi 
long.     Mothlike  insects.     Page  79. 

Trichoptera, 


CLASSIFICATION    OF   INSECTS. 


63 


List  of  Orders  of  the 

Thysanura. 

EpheMerida. 

Odonata. 

Plecoptera. 

Isoptera. 

corrodentia. 

Mallophaga. 

euplexoptera. 

Orthoptera 

Physopoda. 


Hexapoda. 

Hemiptera. 

Neuroptera. 

Mecoptera. 

Trichoptera. 

Lepidoptera. 

Diptera. 

SiPHONAPTERA. 

Coleoptera. 
Hymenoptera. 


Order  Thysanura  (Thys-a-nu'ra). 
Bristletails,  Springtails^  Fish-moths^  and  others. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  wingless  insects  which 
undergo  no  metamorphosis,  the  larval  form  being  retained 
hy  the  adult.  The  mandibles  and  max- 
illcB  are  retracted  within  the  cavity  of 
the  head,  so  that  only  their  tips  are 
visible  ;  they  have,  hozvever,  some  free- 
dom of  motion,  and  can  be  used  for 
biting  and  chewing  soft  substances. 
True  compound  eyes  are  rarely  present ; 
but  in  some  genera  there  is  a  group  of 
simple  eyes  on  each  side  of  the  head. 
The  abdomen  is  sometimes  fur7iished 
with  rudimentary  legs. 

A  familiar  example  of  this  order 
is  the  fish-moth  (Fig-.  33),  which 
often  does  damage  to  starched  cloth- 
ing, bookbindings,  and  sometimes 
loosens  wall  paper  by  eating-  out 
the  paste.  The  hair  line  at  the 
left  of  the  figure  indicates  the  length  of  the  insect. 

The  fish-moth  is  one  of  the  bristletails,  which  are 


l-IG. 


33.  —  The    fish- 
moth. 


64 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Fig.  34.  -  A  springtail. 


SO  called  on  account  of  the  bristles  at  the  hind  end  of 
the  body.     Fig.  34  represents  one  of  the  springtails. 

In  these  insects  there  is  a 
taillike  organ,  which  is  bent 
under  the  insect  when  it  is 
at  rest,  and  by  which  it  can 
leap  several  feet.  Spring- 
tails  are  abundant  in  damp 
places,  among  decaying  veg- 
etation ;  but  they  are  com- 
monly overlooked  on  account  of  their  minute  size. 

The  name  Thysanura  is  from  two  Greek  words : 
thysanos,  a  tassel,  and  otira,  the  tail. 

Order  Ephemerida  (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 
The  May-flies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  delicate  membranous 
wings  with  a  fine  network  of 
veins  ;  the  fore  wings  are  large 
and  the  hi7id  wings  are  much 
smaller^  or  zvanting.  The  mouth- 
parts  are  rudimentary.  The 
7net  morphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is 
from  the  Greek  word  epJieme- 
ros,  lasting  but  a  day.  It  was 
given  to  these  insects  on  ac- 
count of  the  shortness  of  their 
lives  after  reaching  the  adult 
state.  Fig.  35  represents  a 
common  species.  Work  on 
May-flies  is  outlined  in  the 
chapter  on  Pond  Life.  fig.  35.— a  May-fly. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 


65 


Order  Odonata  (Od-o-na'ta). 
The  Dragon- files  and  Damsel-fiies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous 
wings  which  are  finely  netted  ivitJi  veins  ;  the  hind  wings 


Fig.  36. — A  dragon-fly. 

are  as  large  or  larger  than  the  fore  wings,  and  each 
wing  has  7iear  the  middle  of  its 
front  margin  a  joint  like  structure 
— the  nodus.  The  mouth-parts  are 
formed  for  biting.  The  metamor- 
phosis is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is 
evidently  from  the  Greek  word 
odons,  a  tooth  ;  but  the  reason 
for  applying-  it  to  these  insects 
is  obscure.  It  may  refer  to  the 
tusklike  form  of  the  abdomen. 

Fig.  36  represents  a  dragon- 
fly, and  Fig.  37  a  damsel-fly 
Work  on  these  insects  is  out- 
lined in  the  chapter  on  Pond 
Life. 


Fig.  37. — A  damsel-fly, 


66 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Order  Plecoptera  (Ple-cop'te-ra). 
T/ie  Sto7ie-fiies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  membranous 
wings ^  ivith  comparatively  few  or  with  many  cross-veins  ; 
the  hind  zvings  are  much  larger  than  the  fore  wings,  and 
are  folded  in  plaits  and  lie  upon  the  abdomen  when  at 
rest.  The  mouth-parts  are  of  tJie  biting  type  of  structure, 
but  are  frequently  poorly  developed.  The  metamorphosis 
is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words: 
plecos,  plaited,  and  pteron,  a  wing.     It  refers  to  the 


way 


in  which  the  hind  wing^s  are 


Fig.  38. — A  stone-fly. 


Fig.  39. — A  nymph  of  a 
stone-fly. 


folded  when  at  rest.  Fig.  38  represents  one  of  the 
larger  members  of  this  order  with  the  wings  of  one 
side  spread,  and  Fig.  39  represents  a  nymph.  Work 
on  these  insects  is  outlined  in  the  chapter  on  Brook 
Life. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSECTS. 


67 


Order  Isoptera  (I-sop'te-ra). 
The  Termites  or  White-ants. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  social  insects.  Each 
species  consists  of  several  distinct  castes,  of  which  only  the 
"'kings''  and  the  '' qneeiis''  are  winged.  These  have 
four  long,  narrozv  wings,  zvhich  are  soviezvhat  leathery  in 
structure,  and  zvhicJi  are  furnished  with  numerous  but 
more  or  less  indistinct  veins.  The  two  pairs 
of  wings  are  similar  in  form  and  structure, 
and  are  laid  flat  upon  the  back  when  not  in 
use.  The  mouthparts  are  formed  for  bit- 
ing.     The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  termites  are  commonly  called 
white-ants  on  account  of  their  light  color 
and  the  fact  that  they  live  in  large  com- 
munities like  ants.  They  are,  however, 
not  at  all  closely  related  to  the  true  ants. 
They  can  be  distinguished  from  ants  at 
a  glance  by  the  absence  of  a  slender  waist 
between  the  thorax  and  ab- 
domen (Fig.  40). 

The  termites  that  occur 
in  the  United  States  are 
^fe;£/  usually  found  in  old  logs 
and  stumps,  or  in  the 
ground  under  stones.  Dur- 
ing the  greater  part  of  the 
year  only  the  workers  (Fig. 
zjo)  and  the  soldiers  (Fig. 
41)  are  found  in  the  nest. 
But  during  early  summer  the  winged 
forms,  the    newly  developed  kings  and         Aqueen. 


Fig.  40. 
A  worker. 


Fig.  41. 

A  soldier. 


6% 


INSECT   LIFE. 


queens,  also  occur.  A  mature,  egg-lajing-  queen  is 
presumably  present  in  each  nest ;  but  this  form  of 
our  common  species  has  not  yet  been  found.  Fig.  42 
represents  an  egg-laying  queen  of  an  African  species. 
The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words : 
isos,  equal,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the  fact 
that  the  two  pairs  of  wings  are  similar  in  form  and 
structure. 


Order  Corrodentia  (Cor-ro-den'ti-a). 
The  Psocids  (^Fsoc'ids)  and  the  Book-lice. 

The  winged  members  of  this  order  have  four  mem- 
branous wings ^  with  the  veins  prominent,  but  with  com- 
paratively few  cross-veins ;  the  fore  wings  are  larger 
than  tJie  hind  wings  ;  and  both  pairs  when  not  in  use  are 
placed  rooflike  over  the  body,  being  almost  vertical,  and 
not  folded  in  plaits.  The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for 
biting.      The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

The  winged  members  of  this  order  feed  upon 
lichens  and  are  found  on  the  trunks  of  trees  and  on 

fences  ;      they 

often  occur  in 

swarms.      Fig. 

43  represents  a 

common    form 

with  its  wings 

spread. 

The      most 

familiar  repre- 
sentative of  the  wingless  forms  is  the  book-louse 
(Fig.  44).  This  is  a  minute  insect  which  occurs  be- 
tween the  leaves  of  old  books  and  on  papered  walls 
of  houses. 


Fig.  43. — A  psocid. 


Fig.  44. — A  book- 
louse. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSECTS. 


69 


The  name  of  this  order  is  from  the  Latin  word 
corrodere,  to  gnaw,  and  refers  to  the  gnawing  habits 
of  these  insects. 

Order  Mallophaga  (Mal-loph'a-ga). 
The  Bird- lice. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  zuijigless  parasitic  in- 
sects, zvith  biting  mouth-parts.  The  metamorphosis  is 
incomplete. 

The  bird-lice  are  common  on  poultry  and  other 
birds.  They  differ  from  the  true  lice  in  having  bit- 
ing mouth-parts,  and  in  feeding  upon  either 
feathers,  hair,  or  the  skin,  w^hile  the  true 
lice  have  sucking  mouth-parts  and  feed 
upon  blood.  Fig.  45  represents  a  specie's 
which  infests  poultry. 

The   name    of   the   order   is  from    two 
Greek  words  :    mallos,    wool,  and  phagein, 
to  eat.    Although  some  species  infest  sheep       fig.  45. 
and  goats,  feeding  upon  their  w^ool,  by  far    ^^ird-icuse. 
the  greater  number  live  among  the  feathers  of  birds. 

Order  Euplexoptera  (Eu-plex-op'te-ra). 
The  Earwigs. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  apparently  four 
wings  ;  the  first  pair  of  which  are  leathery,  very  small, 
zuithout  veins,  and  whe?t  at  rest  meet  in  a  straight  line  on 
the  back ;  the  second  pair  are  large,  with  radiati?tg  veins, 
and  when  at  rest  are  folded  both  lengthwise  and  cross-wise. 
The  mouthparts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  caudal  end 
of  the  body  is  furnished  zvith  a  pair  of  appendages  zuhich 
resemble  forceps.      The  metamorphosis  is  incomplete. 

These  are  long  and    narrow  insects,  resembling 


70 


INSECT    LIFE. 


rove  beetles  in  the  form  of  the  body  and  in  the  short- 
ness of  the  wing  covers,  but  easily  distinguished  by 
having  a  pair  of  forceps,  at  the  end 
of  the  body  (Fig.  46).  The  common 
name,  earwig,  has  reference  to  a 
widely  spread  fancy  that  these  in- 
sects creep  into  the  ears  of  sleeping 
persons. 

The  earwigs  are  rare  in  the  north- 
eastern United  States,  but  are  more 
often  found  in  the  South  and  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  In  Europe  they  are 
common,  and  are  often  troublesome 
pests,  feeding  upon  the  corollas  of 
flowers,  fruits,  and  other  vegetable 
substances. 

Fig.  46.— An  earwig.  j         •      r 

1  he  name  01  the  order  is  from 
three  Greek  words  :  eu,  \nq\\,  pleko,  to  fold,  ?ir\d  pter 071, 
wing.     It  refers  to  the  unusual  folding  of  the  hind 


Order  Orthoptera  (Or-thop'te-ra). 
Cockroaches,  Crickets,  Grasshoppers,  and  Others. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  luings :  the  first 
pair  are  thickened,  and  overlap  when  at  rest ;  the  second 
pair  are  thinner,  and  are  folded  in  plaits  like  a  fan. 
The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  biting.  The  metamor- 
phosis is  incomplete. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words  : 
ortJios,  straight,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the 
longitudinal  folding  of  the  hind  wings. 

This  order  includes  only  six  families,  and  as  they 
are  among  our  most  common  insects  we  will  briefly 
refer  to  each  of  them. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 


71 


Family  Blattid^  (Blat'ti-dae). — The  body  is  oval 
when  seen  from  above,  and   is  very  flat ;  the  three 
pairs  of  legs  are  similar  in  form  ; 
the    insects    run    rapidly.      They 
are    commonly    known    as   cock- 
roaches.    Some  are  winged  (Fig. 
47),  others  are  wingless  (Fig.  48). 
Family  Mantid^  (Man'ti-dse). 
— The  prothorax  is  very  long  and 
slender;  the  first  pair  of  legs  are 
very    different    from    the    others 
and  are  fitted  for  grasping.  These 
insects    feed     on    other    insects, 
which  they  seize  with  their  fore  legs.     The  suppliant 
attitude  w^hich  they  assume  while  lying  in  wait  for 


Fig.  47. 

The  Croton. 

bug. 


Fig. 
A  wingless 
cockroach. 


Fig.  49. — A  praying-mantis. 


their  prey  (Fig.  49)  has  given  them  the  name  of  pray- 
ing mantes,  the  name  of  the  typical  genus  being 
Mantis. 

Family    Phasmid.^   (Phas'mi-dse). — The    body   is 
very  long  and  slender;  the  three  pairs  of  legs  are 


72 


INSECT   LIFE. 


similar  in  form,  and  are  also  very  long  and  slender; 

the  insects  walk  slowly.     This   family  includes   the 

well-known  walking  sticks  (Fig.  50). 

Family  AcRiDiD^  (A-crid'- 
i-d^e). — There  are  three  fami- 
lies of  this  order  in  which 
the  hind  legs  are  very  much 


Fig.  51.— a  locust. 

stouter  or  very  much  longer, 
or  both  stouter  and  longer, 
than  the  other  pairs,  being 
fitted  for  jumping.  This  is 
the  first  ol  these  three  fami- 
lies. In  this  family  the  an- 
tennas  are  shorter  than  the 


Fig.  52, — A  locust. 

body.  The  ovipositor  is 
short  and  composed  of  four 
separate  plates.  The  tarsi 
are  three-jointed.  The  mem- 
bers of  the  family  are  known 
as  locusts  or  short-horned  grasshoppers  (Figs.  51  and 

.  Family    Locustid^e   (Lo-cus^ti-dse). — This   is   the 
second  of  the  three  families  of  jumping  Orthoptera. 


Fig.  50. — A  walking-stick. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSECTS. 


73 


In  this  family  the  antennae  are  very  slender  and 
longer  than  the  body.  (This  is  also  true  of  crickets.) 
The  ovipositor  is  sword- 
shaped.  The  tarsi  are  four- 
jointed.  The  family  as  a 
whole  are  called  the  true 
grasshoppers  or  the  long- 
horned  grasshoppers.  Some 
of  the  smaller  species  (Fig.  53)  are  known  as  meadow- 
grasshoppers,  and  a  few  of  the  larger  species  are 
called  katydids  (Fig.  54).  It  should  be  observed 
that,  owing  to  an  unfortunate  application  of  names, 


Fig.  53.  —A  meadow-grasshopper. 


Fig,  54.— The  angular-winged  katydid  and  its  eggs. 


74 


INSECT    LIFE. 


the  locusts  do  not  belong  to  the  Locustidge,  but  to 
the  Acrididce. 

Family  Gryllid.e  (Gryrii-dse).— This  is  the  last 
of  the  three  families  of  jumping  Orthoptera.  With 
these  insects  the  antennas, 
like  those  of  the  long-horned 
grasshoppers,  are  very  slen- 
der and  longer  than  the 
body,  except   in   the  mole- 


FlG.  55. — A  cricket. 


Fig.  56.— a  cricket. 


crickets.  The  ovipositor  is  spear-shaped  when  ex- 
erted. The  tarsi  are  three-jointed.  The  members 
of  this  family  are  known  as  crickets  (Figs.  55  and  56). 


Order  Physopoda  (Phy-sop'o-da). 
Thf'ips. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these 
are  similar  in  form,  long,  7tarrow,  menibranous^  not 
folded,  with  but  few  or  710  veins,  and  only  rarely  with 
cross-veins ;  they  are  fringed  with  long  hairs,  and  are 
laid  horizontally  along  the  back  when  at  rest.  The  meta- 
morphosis is  incomplete.  The  mouth-parts  are  probably 
used  chiefly  for  sucking ;  they  are  intermediate  i7t  for 771 
betwee7i  those  of  the  sucki7tg  and  those  of  the  biting  in- 
sects. TJie  tarsi  are  one-  or  twofointed  a7id  bladderlike 
at  tip. 

The     name     Physopoda    is     from     two     Greek 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS.  75 

words  :    physao,  to  blow  up,  and  pons,  a  foot.      It  re- 
fers to  the  curious  bladderlike  feet  of  these  insects. 

The  species  of  thrips  are  very 
minute  insects.  Fig.  57  represents 
one  of  them  greatly  enlarged,  with 
the  wings  of  one  side  spread.  They 
can  be  easily  found  by  pulling  to 
pieces  the  blossoms  of  clover  or 
daisies.  Some  species  are  black, 
others  are  light  brown.  The  wing- 
less nymphs  of  our  common  black 
species  are  bright  red.  f^^-  57.-A  thrips.. 

Order  Hemiptera  (He-mip'te-ra). 

Bugs^  Lice,  Aphids,  ajid  others. 

The  winged  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings  ; 
in  one  suborder  the  first  pair  of  wings  are  thickened 
at  the  base,  with  thinner  extremities  which  overlap 
on  the  back  ;  in  another  suborder  the  first  pair  of 
wings  are  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  and  usu- 
ally slope  at  the  sides  of  the  body.  The  mouthparts 
are  formed  for  sucking.  The  metamorphosis  is  incom- 
plete. 

The  name  Hemiptera  is  from  two  Greek  words: 
hemi,  half,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  was  suggested  by 
the  form  of  the  first  pair  of  wings  in  the  true  bugs. 
Here  the  basal  half  of  these  organs  is  thickened 
somewhat  like  the  wing  covers  of  beetles,  only  the 
terminal  half  being  winglike.  The  second  pair  of 
wings  are  membranous,  and  when  at  rest  are  folded 
beneath  the  first  pair. 

Within  this  order  are  grouped  insects  that  differ 
greatly   in   form   and   appearance.      These   are   dis- 


^6  INSECT    LIFE. 

tributed  among  three  suborders,  which  can  be  sep- 
arated by  the  following  table  : 

A.  Wingless  Hemiptera,  parasitic  upon  man  and  other  mammals,  with  a 

fleshy  unjointed  beak II.  Parasitica. 

A  A.  Hemiptera  with  or  without  wings,  but  with  a  jointed  beak. 
B.  First  pair  of  wings  thickened  at  the  base,  with  thinner  extremities, 
which  overlap  on  the  back  ;  beak  arising  from  the  front  part  of 

the  head  (Fig.  58) , I.  Heteroptera. 

BB.  Wings  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  and  usually  sloping  at 
the  sides  of  the  body  ;  beak  arising  from  the  hinder  part  of  the 
lower  side  of  the  head  (Fig.  59) III.  Homoptera. 

Suborder  Heteroptera  (Het-e-rop'te-ra).     This 
suborder  includes  the  true  bugs,  of  which  the  squash- 
bug  (Fig.  60)  and   the  common 
^^'^1^     stink-bugs    (Fig.    61)    are    well- 


FiG,  58.— Head  of  an  hete- 
ropterous  insect. 


Fig.  59.— Head 

of  an  homopte- 

rous  insect. 


Fig.  60.— The    Fig.  61.— A 
squash-bug.         stink-bug. 


known  examples.  Several  families  of  this  suborder 
are  discussed  in  the  chapters  on  Pond  Life  and  on 
Brook  Life. 

Suborder  Parasita  (Par-a-si'ta). — This  suborder 
is  represented  in  the  United  States  by  only 
one  family,  the  Pediculidse  (Ped-i-cu'li-dse). 
This  family  comprises  the  true  lice  (Fig.  62), 
which  differ  from  the  bird  lice  of  the  order 
Mallophaga  in  having  sucking  mouth  parts. 
The  true  lice  live  on  the  skin  of  mammals 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   INSECTS. 


77 


and  suck  their  blood.     There  are  several  ^species  that 
infest  man. 

Suborder  Homoptera  (Ho-mop'te-ra).— The  Ho- 
moptera  includes  insects  of  widely  diversified  form, 
but  which  agree,  however,  in 
having-  the  wings  when  present 
of  the  same  thickness  through- 
out, and  usually  sloping  roof-like 
at  the  sides  of  the  body  when  at 
rest,  and  in  having  the  beak  arise 
from  the  hinder  part  of  the  lower 
side  of  the  head  (Fig.  59). 

Among  the  more  common 
representatives  of  this  suborder 
are  the  cicadas  (Fig.  63)  and  the 
spittle-insects  and  the  tree-hop- 
pers, described  in  the  chapter  on 
Roadside     Life.      The    common  ^^'  ^'^ 

plant-lice,    or   aphids,    and    the   scale-bugs    are    also 
members  of  this  suborder. 

Order  Neuroptera  (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
The  Dobson,  Aphis-lions^  Ant-lions,  and  Others. 

.  The  members  of  this  order  have  foiir  zvings ;  these 
are  membranous  and  furnished  with  numerous  veins,  and 
usually  zuith  many  cross-veins.  The  head  is  not  pro- 
longed into  a  beak.  The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for 
biting.      The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words  : 
neuron,  a  nerve,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the 
numerous  nerves,  or  veins  as  they  are  more  com- 
monly called,  with  which  the  wings  are  furnished. 

When  the  name  Neuroptera  was  first  used  it  was 


7^ 


INSECT   LIFE. 


applied  to  a  much  larger  group  of  insects  than  now, 
a  group  which  has  since  been  divided  into  many 
orders.  So  that  now,  while  the  name  expresses  a 
character  which  is  true  of  the  order,  it  is  also  true  of 
many  others.* 

One  of  the  more  conspicuous  members  of  the 
order  is  Polystcechotes  punctatus  {Pol-ys-toech' o-tes  punc- 

ta'tiis),  which  is  repre- 
sented by  Fig.  64.  To  this 
order  also  belong  Corydalis 
(see    page     153)    and    the 

V\Q.  6^.— Polystcechotes  punctatus.      Aphis-lio7lS  {?>QQ  \)digQ   I  78). 

Order  Mf.coptera  (Me-cop'te-ra). 
The  Scorpion-flies  and  Others. 

The  7neinbers  of  this  order  have  four  zvings ;  these 
are  membranous  and  furnished  with  numerous  veins. 
The  head  is  prolonged  into  a  beak,  at  the  end  of  which 
biting  mouthparts  are  situated.  The  metamorphosis  is 
complete. 

This  is  a  small  order  composed  of  very  remark- 
able insects.  The  most  striking  character  common 
to  all  is  the  shape  of  the  head,  which  is 
prolonged  into  a  beak  w^ith  jaws  at  the 
end  (Fig.  65).  The  name  Mecoptera  is 
from  two  Greek  words  :  mecos,  length, 
and  pteron,  a  wing. 

The  members  of  the  genus  Panorpa  Fig.  65.— Head 
{Pa-nor'pa)  (Fig.  66)  are  called  scorpion-      o^^^^coipion- 


*  The  Neuroptera  of  the  older  entomologists  included  the  following 
orders  :  Thysanura,  Ephemerida,  Odonata,  Plecoptera,  Isoptera,  Corro- 
dentia,  Mallophaga,  Neuroptera,  Mecoptera,  and  Trichoptera. 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    INSECTS. 


79 


flies  on  account  of  the  peculiar  form  of  the  caudal 
part  of  the  abdomen  of  the  male  (Fig.  6^).  This  at 
first  sight  suggests  the  corresponding  part 
of  a  scorpion,  but  in  reality  the  two  are 
very  different. 

Very  closely  allied  to  the  scorpion-flies 
are  the  insects  of  the  genus  Bittacus  {Bit'- 


ta-cus). 


Fig.  66.— a 
scorpion-fly. 


Fig.  67. 
Tail  of  a 
scorpion- 
fly. 


These  insects  have  long  narrow 
wings,  long  legs,  and  a  slender 
abdomen.  They  resemble  crane- 
flies  very  closely  when  on  the  wing.  In 
this  genus  the  caudal  appendages  of  the 
male  are  not  enlarged  as  in  Panorpa. 

The  species  of  the  genus  Boreus  {Bo're- 
iis)  are  remarkable  for  occurring  on  snow  in 
the  winter  in  our  Northern  States.  In  this 
genus  the  females  are  wingless,  while  the 
males  have  rudimentary  wings. 


Order  Trichoptera  (Tri-chop'te-ra). 
The  Caddice-flies  or  Caddice-worms. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these 
are  membrafiotcs,  furnished  with  numerous  longitudinal 
veins,  but  with  only  few  cross-veins,  and  are  more  or  less 
densely  clothed  with  hairs.  The  mouth-parts  are  rudi- 
TYientary.      The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 


Fig.  68.— a  caddice-fly. 


Fig.  69. — A  caddice-worm. 


This  order  is  composed  of  the  caddice-flies  and 
caddice-worms  (Figs.  6Z  and  69),  which  are  discussed 


8o 


INSECT    LIFE. 


in  the  chapter  on  Brook  Life.  The  name  of  the 
order  is  from  two  Greek  words:  thrix,  a  \\?ivc, pteron, 
a  winof.  It  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  wino:s  are 
clothed  with  hair. 

Order  Lepidoptera  (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 

The  Moths,  or  Millers,  the  Skippers,  and  the  Butte)- flies. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  these 
are  membranous  and  covered  with  overlapping  scales. 
The  mouth-parts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  meta- 
inorpJwsis  is  complete. 

The  name  of  this  order  is  from  two  Greek  words : 
lepis,  a  scale,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the 
fact   that   the    wings    of   these    insects   are    covered 

with  scales.  Every  lad 
that  lives  in  the  country 
knows  that  the  wings  of 
moths  and  butterflies  are 
covered  with  dust,  which 
comes  off  upon  one's  lin- 
ofers  when  these  insects 
are  handled.  This  dust 
when  examined  with  a 
microscope  is  found  to  be 
composed  of  very  minute 

Fig.  70.— Part  of  a  win?  of  a  butter-  i  r     v-pp-nlar      form 

fly,  greatly  magnified.     The  scales  SCalCS     01      rCgUldr      lOrm, 

were  removed  froni  a  portion  of  ^^^^  when  a  wiuo^  is  looked 
the  specimen  figured.  o 

at  in  the  same  way  the 
scaks  are  seen  arranged  with  more  or  less  regularity 
upon  it  (Fig.  70).  The  body,  the  legs,  and  other  ap- 
pendages are  also  covered  with  scales. 

This  order  has  been  discussed  in  Lessons  XXIII 
to  XXV,  and   several  representatives  of  it  are   de- 


M^' 

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Plate  III.— SOME    SPHINX    MOTHS. 

FIGURE 

1.  The  Abbot  Sphinx,   Thyreus  abboti.    The  larva  feeds  on  grape. 

2.  The  White-lined  Sphinx,  Deilephila  lineata.     The  larva  feeds 

on  apples,  grapes,  and  many  other  plants. 

3.  The    Dark-veined    Deilephila,    Deilephila  gallii.      The    larva 

feeds  on  grape. 

4.  The    Bumblebee    Hawk-moth,    Hemarps   diffinis.     The   larva 

feeds  on  the  bush  honeysuckle  and  the  snowberry. 

5.  The   Nessus   Sphinx,    Amphion  nessMs.     The   larva  feeds   on 

grape  and  rubiaceae. 


Plate  III. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 


8l 


scribed  in  the  chapters  following  this  one.  The 
principal  divisions  of  the  Lepidoptera  that  are  ap- 
propriately discussed  here  are  three  :  The  moths, 
the  skippers,  and  the  butterflies. 

The  Moths. — These  are  the  insects  commonly 
called  millers.  Most  of  the  species  fly  by  night  and 
are  frequently  attracted  to  lights.     When  at  rest  the 


Fig.  71. — A  moth  with  threadlike  antennas. 

wings  are  either  wrapped  around  the  body,  or  are 
spread  horizontally,  or  are  folded  rooflike  on  the 
abdomen ;  they  are  not  held  in  a  vertical  position 
above  the  body.     The  antennas  of  moths  are  of  vari- 


FiG.  72. — A  moth  with  featherlike  antenn£e. 

ous  forms ;  they  are  usually  threadlike  or  featherlike  ; 
only  in  rare  cases  are  they  enlarged  toward  the  tip 
(Figs.  71,  72). 

The  Skippers. — The  skippers  are  so  called  on  ac- 


82 


INSECT    LIFE. 


count  of  their  peculiar  mode  of  flight.  They  fly  in 
the  daytime  and  dart  suddenly  from  place  to  place. 
When  at  rest  they  usually  hold  the  wings  erect  in  a 
vertical  position  like  butterflies;  often  the  fore  wings 
are  thus  held  while  the  hind  wings  are  extended 
horizontally.  The  antennae  are  threadlike,  and  en- 
larged toward  the  tip  ;  but  in  most  cases  the  extreme 
tip  is  pointed  and  recurved,  forming  a  hook.     The 


Fig.  73.— a  skipper. 


FiG.  74. — A  skipper. 


abdomen  is  usually  stout,  resembling  that  of  a  moth 
rather  than  that  of  a  butterfly  (Figs.  73,  74). 


Fig.  75. — The  goat-weed  butterfly. 

The  Butterflies. — The  butterflies  fly  by  day,  and 
when  at  rest  they  fold  the  wings  together  above  the 
back  in  a  vertical  position.     The  antennas  are  thread- 


CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 


83 


like  with  a  club  at  the  tip,  which  is  never  recurved  so 
as  to  form  a  hook.  The  abdomen  is  slender  (Figs. 
75,  76). 


Fig.  76, — The  banded-purple  butterfly. 

Order  Diptera  (Dip'te-ra). 
The  Flies. 

The  members   of  this   order  have  only  two  wings  ; 
these  are  borne  by  the  mesothorax.      The  metathorax  is 
furnished  zvith  a  pair  of  knobbed  threads — the  halteres. 
The  month-parts    are  formed  for  sucking.      The   meta- 
morphosis is  complete. 

To  the  order  Diptera  belong  all  insects  that  are 
properly  termed  flies,  and  only  these.  The  word 
"  fly  "  forms  a  part  of  many  compound  names  of  in- 
sects of  other  orders,  as  butterfly,  stone-fly,  May-fl}^ 
and  Chalcis-fly  ;  but  when  used  alone,  it  is  correctly 
applied  only  to  dipterous  insects.  To  some  flies 
other  common  names  have  been  applied,  as  mosquito, 
gnat,  and  midge. 

The  name  Diptera  is  from  two  Greek  words  :  dis^ 
two,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  It  was  suggested  by  the 
fact  that  the  flies  are  distinguished  by  the  possession 


84 


INSECT   LIFE. 


of  a  single  pair  of  wings  ;  for  no  fly  has  more  than 
two  wings,  and  only  a  few  are  wingless. 

The  common  house-fly  is  the  best-known  repre- 
sentative of  this  or- 
der. Fig.  "jj  repre- 
sents a  crane-fly,  so 
called  on  account  of 
its  long  legs.  In  this 
figure  the  halteres, 
which  represent  the 
hind  wings  in  this  or- 
der, are  well  shown. 
Several  families  of 
flies  are  referred  to 
in  the  following  chap- 

FiG.  77.— A  crane-fly.  tcr. 


Order  Siphonaptera  (Siph-o-nap'te-ra). 
The  Fleas. 

The  members  of  this  order  are  practically  wingless^ 
the  wings  being  represented  only  by  minute  scaly  plates. 
The  mouthparts  are  formed  for  sucking.  The  meta- 
morphosis is  complete. 

The  name  of  the  order  is 
from  two  Greek  words  :  si- 
phon, a  tube,  and  pteros, 
wingless.  It  refers  to  the 
form  of  the  mouth  and  to  the 
wingless  condition  of  the  in- 
sects.    Fig.  78  represents  the 

j^^  ri_„  J    ' i.     1  Fig.  78. — The  dog-flea  and  its 

dog-flea  and  its  larva.  '        larva. 


Plate  IV. 


Plate  IV.— BEETLES. 

FIGURE 

1.  The  Six-spotted  Tiger-beetle,  Cicindela  sexguttata.     See  page 

270. 

2.  The  Searcher,  Calosoma  scrutator.     A  predaceous  beetle. 

3.  Caloptero7t  reticulatum,  a  diurnal  member  of  the  firefly  family. 

4.  ChlcEtiius  sericeus,  a  ground-beetle. 

5.  Brachynus  fumaits,  a  bombardier  beetle. 

6.  The  Round-headed  Apple-tree  Borer,  Saperda  Candida. 

7.  The  Poplar  Borer,  Saperda  calcarata. 

8.  The  Cloaked   Knotty-horn,  Desmocerus  palliatiis.     The  larva 

bores  in  the  pith  of  elder. 

9.  Buprestis  fdsciata^  one  of  the  metallic  wood-borers. 

TO.     The  Spotted   Pelidnota,  Pelidnota  punctata.     It  feeds  on   the 
leaves  of  grape. 

11.  Dicerca  divartcata,  one  of  the  metallic  wood-borers  ;  the  larva 

bores  in  peach,  cherry,  beech,  and  maple. 

12.  A  burying  beetle,  N'ecrophorus. 

13.  PhancBus  carnifex,  male  ;  one  of  the  tumble-bugs. 

14.  Fhancsus  carnifex,  female. 


HrTR- 


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;  ■:1jSC 

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■SJ 

t;;.T 

.01 

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4U 

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al^rnsj 

.X'iViS^^^Si-)  z 

■.';;'5i5'^X5S\^ 

•■H 

CLASSIFICATION   OF    INSECTS. 

Order  Coleoptera  (Co-le-op'te-ra). 

The  Beetles. 


85 


The  members  of  this  order  have  a  pair  of  horny  wing- 
covers,  called  elytra,  which  meet  in  a  straight  line  down 
the  back,  and  beneath  which  there  is  a  single  pair  of  ineni- 
branous  wings.  The  mouthparts  are  formed  for  biting. 
The  metamorphosis  is  complete. 

Beetles  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  all  other 
insects  except  earwigs  by  the 
possession  of  horny,  veinless 
wing-covers,  which  meet  in  a 
straight  line  down  the  back 
(Fig.  79);  and  they  differ  from 
earwigs  in  lacking  the  pincer- 
like  appendages  at  the  tail  end 
of  the  body  characteristic  of 
those    insects    (see    page    70).  Fia  79- a  beetle. 

Beetles    also    differ   from    ear- 
wigs in  having  a  complete  metamorphosis. 

The  name  of  the  order  Coleoptera  is  from  two 
Greek  words  :  coleos,  a  sheath,  and  pteron,  a  wing. 
It  refers  to  the  sheathlike  structure  of  the  elytra 
(el^y-tra)  or  wing-covers,  which  were  formerly  be- 
lieved to  be  modified  wings. 

This  order  has  been  studied  in  Lessons  XVIII  to 
XX,  and  several  families  are  described  in  the  foUow^- 
ing  chapters. 

Order  Hymenoptera  (Hy-me-nop'te-ra). 
Bees,  Wasps,  Ants,  and  Others. 

The  members  of  this  order  have  four  wings ;  tiiese 
are  membraitous,  and  furnished  with  comparatively  few  or 


86 


INSECT   LIFE. 


zvitJi  no  transverse  veins.  The  hind  wings  are  smaller 
than  the  fore  wings.  The  mouth- parts  are  formed  for 
biting  and  sucking.  The  abdomen  in  the  female  is 
usually  fur?iisJied  zvith  a  sting,  piercer,  or  saw.  The 
metamorphosis  is  complete. 

The  bees,  wasps,  and  ants  are  among  the  better- 
known  insects,  and  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
characteristic  appearance  of 
the  members  of  this  order. 
They  are  chiefly  insects  of 
small  or  moderate  size,  and 
many  of  them  abound  wher- 
ever flowers  bloom.  From  the 
Fig.  8o.— An  ichneumon-fly.  earliest  timcs  they  havc  been 
favorites  with  students  of  the 
habits  of  animals,  for  among  them  we  find  the  most 
wonderful  developments  of  instinctive  powers.  Many 
volumes  have  been  written  regarding  their  ways, 
and  much  remains  to  be  discovered,  even  concerning 
our  most  common  species. 

The  name  of  the  order  is  from  two  Greek  words : 
hymeit,  membrane,  2ind pteron,  a  wing.  It  refers  to  the 
fact  that  the  wings  are  of  a  delicate  membranous  tex- 


FlG,  8i. — An  ensign-fly. 


Fig.  82, — A  digger-wasp. 


ture  ;  but  this  characteristic  is  not  distinctive,  for  it 
is  possessed  by  the  wings  of  many  other  insects. 
Figs.  80,  81,  and  82  represent  members  of  this  order. 


Plate  V. 


A  POND. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

POND     LIFE. 

F  all  delightful  fields  for  Nature  study 
none  can  surpass  in  interest  a  well- 
stocked  pond,  for  there  is  a  pecul- 
iar fascination  in  the  study  of  pond 
life.  Even  to  one  who  knows  lit- 
tle about  Nature,  a  pretty  pond, 
partly  shaded  by  trees  and  fringed 
with  water-plants,  is  a  source  of  de- 
light. What  pleasure  when  one  is 
tired  to  lie  on  a  grassy  bank  and  watch 
the  ripples  chase  each  other  over  the 
water,  or  to  thread  one's  way  through  a  rank  growth 
of  sedges  and  rushes  to  where  the  cat-tail  flags  rear 
their  tall  spikes,  and  the  sweet-scented  water-lilies 
lift  themselves  above  their  shield-shaped  leaves,  or  to 
fioat  in  a  boat  and  watch  the  clouds  above  and  their 
doubles  in  the  mirror  below  ! 

Such  experiences  bring  rest  and  a  feeling  of  har- 
mony with  Nature.  But  a  keener  enjoyment  comes 
with  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  forms  of 
life  that  abound  in  these  places,  when  one  can  look 
upon  each  kind  of  water-plant  as  an  old  friend,  and 
know  something  of  the  ways  of  the  creatures  that 
glide  over  the  surface  or  swim  beneath. 

87 


SS  INSECT   LIFE. 

There  is  a  pond  that  we  love  to  visit  when  we  are 
tired  with  work  at  our  desks.  It  is  a  long",  narrow 
one  that  winds  beneath  overhanging  trees,  and  is 
margined  with  a  dense  growth  of  water-plants. 
Over  this  pond  dragon-flies  hawk  at  midges ;  on  a 
dead  tree  near  the  bank  a  kingfisher  has  his  perch, 
from  which  on  our  approach  he  swoops  down  twirl- 
ing his  watchman's  rattle  ;  sometimes  in  the  swamp 
near  by  we  frighten  up  a  bittern  ;  and  in  the  shal- 
lows near  the  shore  the  great  blue  heron  loves  to 
fish,  standing  knee-deep  in  the  water  watching  pa- 
tiently for  his  victims. 

Here,  too,  occur  large  colonies  of  whirligig-bee- 
tles, which  chase  each  other  round  and  round  as  if 
at  play ;  water-striders  skim  over  the  surface  ;  the 
marsh-treader  glides  on  its  stiltlike  legs  among  the 
rushes  and  floating  leaves ;  and,  beneath  the  surface, 
water- boatmen,  back -swimmers,  water- scorpions, 
diving -beetles,  and  many  other  strange  creatures 
abound. 

We  go  to  this  pond  and  watch  these  creatures  in 
their  homes  and  then  we  bring  some  of  them  to  our 
study,  where  we  put  them  in  aquaria,  and  try  to 
learn  more  about  their  ways. 

Similar  ponds  can  be  found  in  most  country 
places,  and  the  following  pages  of  this  chapter  are 
written  to  aid  others  in  making  similar  studies. 

In  the  studies  of  life  histories  the  pupil  should  be 
very  careful  in  his  observations  ;  it  is  easy  to  make 
mistakes.  Do  not  be  satisfied  with  seeing  a  thing 
once,  but  observe  it  over  and  over  again.  Make  sure 
you  are  right  and  then  look  again.  This  is  the  only 
way  in  which  good  scientific  work  can  be  done,  and 


POND   LIFE. 


89 


every  pupil  can  be  a  scientific  observer  if  he  has  eyes 
and  will  use  them  properly. 

INSECTS    THAT    FLY    OVER    PONDS. 

The  Dragon-flies,  or  Darning-needles,  and 
THE  Damsel-flies  {Field  Work), — It  is  a  field  day, 
and  we  find  ourselves  near  our  favorite  pond,  drawn 
here  by  a  charm  we  do  not  care  to  resist.  We  are 
seated  on  a  convenient  log  on  the  bank.  Below  us 
lies  the  water  without  a  ripple  on  its  surface,  and 
whether  we  look  up  or  look  down  we  see  the  same 
beautiful  foliage  of  the  graceful  trees  that  line  the 
shores.  Fringing  the  bank  beyond  is  a  bed  of  lilies, 
whose  shields  float  on  the  surface,  and  at  our  feet 
great  arrowlike  leaves  point  upward.  Not  a  breath 
stirs  a  branch,  and  so  still  is  it  that  it  seems  as  if  no 
living  thing  were  here  except  the  invisible,  silent 
stream  of  life  within  twig  and  leaf.  Suddenly  there 
shoots  over  the  pond  that  swiftest  of  w^inged  crea- 
tures, a  dragon-fly.  So  rapid  is  its  flight  that  we 
can  hardly  follow  it  with  our  sight.  Back  and  forth 
it  goes,  when,  discovering  strangers,  it  darts  in  front 
of  us  and  suddenly  stops  in  midair.  Here  it  hangs 
for  a  moment  motionless,  except  for  its  rapidly 
vibrating  wings,  and  then  as  suddenly  darts  away. 

What  a  pity  that  children  should  be  taught  to 
fear  this  beautiful,  harmless  creature  by  the  silly 
legend  that  it  will  sew  up  their  eyes  and  ears ! 

The  habits  of  dragon-flies  are  such  that  they  can 
be  studied  only  in  the  field  ;  the  roomiest  of  breed- 
ing cages  would  offer  slight  scope  for  the  powers  of 
these  insects.  We  must  therefore  watch  them  while 
free  if  we  would  learn  what  they  do. 


90 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Yonder  flies  a  tiny  insect,  a  midge  or  a  mosquito ; 
as  we  watch  it,  a  dragon-fly  darts  at  it  and  it  is  gone. 
Now  that  we  have  learned  what  to  watch  for,  we  see 
insect  after  insect  destroyed  by  the  rapacious  crea- 
ture ;  no  wonder  that  it  is  called  a  dragon. 

Other  dragon-flies  have  come  to  our  pond.  Some 
of  them  are  behaving  quite  differently  from  the  one 
that  is  hawking  mosquitoes.  They  soar  over  the 
pond,  and  at  frequent  intervals  swoop  down  and 
touch  the  water  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  Why 
do  they  do  this?  Are  they  at  play  splashing  the 
water  like  a  child?  No,  these  are  females  laying 
their  eggs.  The  young  of  dragon-flies  lead  a  very 
different  life  from  that  of  the  adult.  They  live  be- 
neath the  water  upon  the  bottom  of  the  pond  or 
stream  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  the  adult  places 
her  eggs  in  such  a  position  that  when  the  young 
hatch  they  will  be  in  their  proper  element. 

Not  all  dragon-flies  lay  their  eggs  as  these  are 
doing.  On  one  occasion  the  writer,  in  company  with 
his  class,  saw  a  dragon-fly  poising  herself  in  the  air  a 
short  distance  above  the  point  where  a  water-plant 
emerged  from  the  water.  At  frequent  intervals  the 
insect  descended  with  a  swift  curved  movement, 
pushing  the  end  of  her  abdomen  into  the  water.  On 
examination  a  large  cluster  of  eggs  was  found  at- 
tached to  the  plant  just  below  the  surface.  And 
Prof.  Uhler  has  observed  a  dragon-fly  alight  upon  a 
reed,  and,  pushing  the  end  of  her  body  below  the 
surface  of  the  water,  glue  a  bunch  of  eggs  to  the 
submerged  stem. 

The  dragon-flies  that  we  have  been  observing 
hold  their  wings  spread  out  stifBy  when  at  rest  (Fig. 


PONU    LIFE. 


91 


83).     But  there  are  certain  insects,  abundant  about  a 
ditch  near  this  pond,  which  resemble  these  dragon- 


FlG.  83. 

flies  very  closely  in  structure,  but  differ  in  that  they 
fold  their  wings  parallel  with  the  body  when  resting 
(Fig.  84).  They  have  not  the  great  powers  of  flight 
possessed  by  the  dragon-flies  that  do  not  fold  their 
wings,  but  flit  airily  from  plant 
to  plant.  The  more  gentle  hab- 
its of  these  insects  have  led  the 
French  to  call  them  demoiselles 
or  damsels. 

English  writers  heretofore 
have  classed  both  of  these  kinds 
of  insects  under  the  name  dra- 
gon-flies, but  in  the  following 
pages  we  will  restrict  the  name 
dragon-flies  to  those  that  hold 
their  wings  spread  out  and  term 
those  that  fold  their  wings  dam- 
sel-flies. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of 
damsel-flies.     Some  have  nearly  fig.  84. 


Q2  INSECT   LIFE. 

colorless  wings  and  comparatively  dull-colored  bod- 
ies, while  others  have  shiny-black  wings  and  brilliant, 
metallic-green  or  blue  bodies. 

The  damsel-flies  la}^  their  eggs  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  These  insects  have  well-developed  oviposi- 
tors with  which  they  can  make  incisions  in  the  stems 
or  leaves  of  plants ;  and  some  of  the  species  at  least, 
when  they  wish  to  lay  their  eggs,  crawl  down  the 
stems  of  aquatic  plants  and  lay  their  eggs  in  them  be- 
neath the  water. 

Can  it  be  that  the  habit  of  folding  their  wangs 
when  they  are  not  in  use  is  correlated  with  the  pecul- 
iar egg-laying  habits  of  these  insects?  Certainly  it 
would  be  difficult  for  them  to  creep  beneath  the  water 
were  their  wings  expanded  like  those  of  dragon-flies. 

Let  those  who  have  accompanied  us  on  this  field 
trip  try  to  learn  something  new  about  dragon-flies 
and  damsel-flies.  This  they  can  do  by  patiently 
watching.  They  can  learn  upon  what  kinds  of  in- 
sects these  creatures  feed  ;  they  can  observe  differ- 
ences in  their  modes  of  flight,  and  in  the  regions 
which  each  prefers  to  haunt;  and  they  can  ascertain 
more  than  we  now  know  regarding  the  various  ways 
in  w^hich  they  lay  their  eggs.  As  soon  as  an  observa- 
tion is  made,  it  should  be  recorded  in  a  notebook  or 
on  slips  of  paper  carried  for  this  purpose. 

After  observations  have  been  made  on  one  of 
these  insects,  that  particular  one  should  be  captured 
if  possible,  so  that  the  record  of  the  observation  may 
be  completed  by  determining  the  particular  species 
observed. 

Other  specimens  should  be  taken  for  study  at 
school  and  for  preservation  in  your  collection. 


POND    LIFE, 


93 


It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  catch  dragon-flies 
while  they  are  on  the  wing.  Watch  them  till  one 
ahghts,  and  then  approach  it  quietly  till  within  reach 
of  it  and  capture  it  with  a  very  quick  sweep  of  the 
net.     Damsel-flies,  however,  are  easily  captured. 

The  Habits  of  Dragon-flies  and  Damsel- 
flies  {School  Work). — Write  an  account  of  an  excur- 
sion that  you  have  made  yourself  to  a  pond  or 
stream,  and  include  in  it  the  observations  that  you 
made  on  dragon-flies  and  damsel-flies.  State  also  in 
this  account  whether  you  believe  these  insects  to  be 
injurious  or  beneficial  to  man,  and  the  reasons  for  this 
belief. 

Copy  the  following  label  and  place  it  above  the 
dragon-flies  and  damsel-flies  in  your  collection  :  "^ 
Order  Odonata  (Od-o-na'ta). 
The  Dragon- flies  and  Dajnsel flies. 

Blue  draofon-flies  knitting- 
To  and  fro  in  the  sun, 
With  sidelong  jerk  flitting 
Sink  down  on  the  rushes, 
And,  motionless  sitting. 

With  level  wings  swinging 

On  green  tasseled  rushes. 

To  dream  in  the  sun. — Lowell. 

The  Structure  of  Dragon-flies  {School  Work). 
— Select  for  study  one  of  the  large  dragon-flies  col- 
lected on  the  last  field  day,  one  of  those  that  hold 
the  wings  spread  out  when  at  rest.     If  you  failed  to 

*  In  writing  these  labels,  underscore  the  word  in  capitals  with  two 
lines,  and  the  words  in  italics  with  a  single  line.     See  example,  page  42. 


94 


INSECT    LIFE. 


get  any,  borrow  one  of  some  more  successful  collec- 
tor. Do  not  touch  the  specimen  itself,  lest  3^ou  break 
it,  but  handle  it  by  means  of  the  pin  with  which  it  is 
pinned. 

1.  Observe  the  general  appearance  of  the  insect, 
noting  the  large  head,  the  slender  neck,  the  stout 
thorax,  the  broadly  expanded  wings,  and  the  long, 
slender  abdomen. 

2.  Study  the  head,  noting  its  shape,  the  puffed  out 
front  portion,  the  concave  hinder  side,  and  the  large 
compound  eyes. 

3.  Examine  the  compound  eyes  with  a  lens  or 
microscope,  and  make  a  drawing  illustrating  the  struc- 
ture of  the  surface  ;  only  a  small  portion  of  one  eye 
need  be  represented,  but  show  this  greatly  enlarged. 
State  the  proportion  of  the  surface  of  the  head  occu- 
pied by  the  compound  eyes. 

4.  Find  the  simple  eyes,  using  a  lens  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  they  are  situated  in  the  triangular  space  be- 
tween the  compound  eyes  and  the  puffed  out  front 
portion  of  the  head.     How  many  of  them  are  there? 

5.  Observe  the  antennae ;  these  are  very  small, 
and  are  situated  in  the  same  triangular  space  as  the 
simple  eyes.  Each  antenna  consists  of  a  stouter 
basal  part  and  a  slender,  bristlelike  part  composed  of 
several  segments.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  antenna 
greatly  enlarged. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  head  seen  from  above, 
representing  each  of  the  parts  already  mentioned. 
Make  the  drawing  large  enough  so  that  the  simple 
eyes  and  antenna  can  be  well  shown. 

7.  Study  the  lower  side  of  the  head  and  make  a 
drawing  of  the  mouth-parts  that  can  be  seen  without 


POND   LIFE. 


95 


dissection.  These  are  the  upper  lip  or  labrum,  the 
tips  of  the  mandibles,  and  the  lower  lip  or  labium. 
The  maxillge  are  usually  concealed  when  the  mouth 
is  closed.  The  labium  is  very  large  and  ends  in 
three  broad  flaps,  one  below  the  mouth  and  one  on 
each  side ;  the  one  below  the  mouth  is  sometimes 
more  or  less  split  on  the  middle  line,  and  each  of  the 
side  flaps  bears  a  slender  appendage ;  sometimes, 
however,  these  appendages  are  very  minute. 

8.  Study  the  parts  of  the  head  already  examined 
with  a  view  to  seeing  how  they  are  fitted  to  their 
use.  The  most  conspicuous  parts  are  the  very  large 
eyes ;  evidently  the  sense  of  sight  is  exceedingly  im- 
portant to  these  insects;  note  also  that  the  shape  of 
the  eyes  is  such  that  the  insect  can  see  in  all  direc- 
tions without  making  any  movement  of  the  head  or 
body.  Regarding  the  simple  eyes,  we  can  only  say 
that  three  well-developed  ones  are  present ;  no  one 
has  yet  discovered  the  peculiar  use  of  these  eyes  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  the  compound  eyes,  but 
it  seems  as  if  they  must  have  a  function  different 
from  that  of  the  compound  eyes,  else  why  should  an 
insect  with  such  highly  developed  compound  eyes 
possess  simple  eyes  also.  In  many  insects  the  sense 
of  smell  is  believed  to  have  its  seat  in  the  antennas ; 
if  that  is  so  in  dragon-flies,  it  is  evident  that  com- 
paratively little  use  is  made  of  this  sense  by  these  in- 
sects, for  the  antennse  are  so  slightly  developed  as  to 
be  little  more  than  rudimentary  organs  ;  but  it  is  not 
strange  that  insects  so  well  provided  with  organs  of 
sight  should  have  little  use  for  organs  of  smell  in 
hawking  their  prey  or  in  seeking  their  mates.  The 
mouth -parts   are  admirably    fitted    for   seizing   and 


96 


INSECT   LIFE. 


holding  the  small  insects  upon  which  the  dragon-flies 
feed.  It  is  also  probable  that  the  freedom  of  move- 
ment of  the  head  resulting  from  the  slenderness  of  the 
neck  is  of  great  use  to  these  insects  in  seizing  their 
prey. 

9.  Study  the  peculiar  features  of  the  thorax,  not- 
ing the  following  points  :  Its  large  size — this  is  neces- 
sary to  give  room  for  the  large  and  powerful  mus- 
cles that  move  the  wings.  The  position  of  the  legs — 
these  are  situated  much  farther  forward  than  is 
usual  with  insects,  all  of  the  legs  being  nearer  the 
head  than  the  wings.  The  legs  are  used  but  little  for 
walking,  their  chief  use  being  for  clinging  to  some 
support  and,  perhaps,  for  seizing  prey.  With  most 
insects  the  middle  and  hind  pairs  of  legs  are  attached 
to  the  thorax  farther  back  than  are  the  correspond- 
ing wings,  and  consequently  the  side  pieces  of  the 
thorax  between  the  wangs,  and  these  legs  slope  back- 
ward and  downward 
from  the  wings.  This 
is  shown  in  Fig.  85, 
which  represents  a 
side  view  of  a  locust 
with  its  wings  re- 
moved. In  a  dragon-fly  these  side  pieces  of  the  tho- 
rax slope  forzvard  and  downward.  Make  a  drawing 
of  a  side  view  of  a  dragon-fly,  illustrating  this  point ; 
the  wings  need  not  be  represented,  and  only  the 
bases  of  the  legs  need  be  shown,  as  is  done  in  the 
figure  of  a  locust. 

10.  Examine  the  legs  of  the  dragon-fly,  noting 
the  spines  borne  by  the  femur  and  tibia.  Consider 
the  possible  use  of  these  spines  in  catching  and  hold- 


FiG.  85. 


POND   LIFE. 


97 


ing  prey.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  these  legs  and 
label  the  following  parts:  coxa,  trochanter,  femur, 
tibia,  tarsus,  and  claws. 

11.  Study  the  wings.  These  wings  are  of  espe- 
cial interest,  for,  judging  by  the  powers  of  fiight  of 
these  insects,  they  must  be  extremely  well  fitted  for 
their  use.  Although  large  they  are  very  light ;  yet 
notwithstanding  their  lightness  they  are  strong,  be- 
ing strengthened  by  a  large  number  of  veins  and 
veinlets,  and  the  margin  of  the  wing  is  strengthened 
throughout  by  an  ambient  vein.  Near  the  middle  of 
the  length  of  the  frontal  (costal)  margin  of  each 
wing  there  is  a  jointlike  structure :  this  is  called  the 
nodus ;  this  structure  is  characteristic  of  the  wings  of 
dragon-flies  and  damsel-fiies,  but  its  use  is  not  known. 
The  front  part  of  each  wing,  which  is  the  part  where 
the  greatest  strength  is  required,  is  folded  in  plaits 
somewhat  like  a  fan.  This  adds  greatly  to  the 
strength  of  the  wing.  Take  a  flat  piece  of  writing 
paper  and  observe  how  easily  it  can  be  bent.  Now, 
fold  this  piece  of  paper  like  a  fan  and  see  how  much 
stiffer  it  is.  Study  the  cross-veins  extending  back 
from  vein  I  (i.  e.,  the  front  margin  of  the  wing)  and 
note  that  some  of  them  extend  straight  across  the 
furrow  to  vein  III  (the  second  vein  from  the  margin), 
and  are  in  the  form  of  triangular  braces  that  tend  to 
preserve  the  form  of  the  furrow. 

12.  The  abdomen  is  long,  and  usually  quite  slen- 
der. The  necessity  for  the  great  length  of  the  abdo- 
men is  not  quite  clear ;  it  may  be  that  the  abdomen 
serves  to  steady  the  flight  like  the  shaft  of  an  arrow ; 
and,  too,  there  may  exist  a  relation  between  the  form 
of  the  wings  and  that  of  the  abdomen.     With  most 


gS  INSECT    LIFE. 

swiftly  flying  insects,  as  the  bees,  wasps,  hawk-moths, 
and  others,  the  hind  wings  are  reduced  in  size,  and 
thus  there  is  a  concentration  of  the  powers  of  flight 
to  a  region  near  the  front  end  of  the  body,  which 
adds  to  its  efficiency,  for  the  opposite  arrangement 
would  result  like  an  effort  to  shoot  an  arrow  with  the 
wrong  end  forward  ;  with  dragon-flies  the  hind  wings 
are  as  large  as  or  larger  than  the  fore  wings,  but 
the  great  length  of  the  abdomen  results  in  the  flight 
organs  as  a  whole  being  comparatively  near  the  front 
end  of  the  body.  It  should  also  be  observed  that 
the  form  of  the  abdomen  is  well  fitted  for  the  pecul- 
iar method  of  laying  the  eggs.  In  the  males  of 
dragon-flies  there  is  a  slit  in  the  lower  side  of  the 
second  abdominal  segment,  which  contains  an  organ 
furnished  with  hooks.  Dragon-flies  and  damsel-flies 
differ  from  all  other  insects  in  the  position  of  this 
organ  of  the  males.  Determine  the  sex  of  each  of 
your  specimens  and  label  them  male  or  female  as  the 
case  may  be. 

13.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  dragon-fly  seen  from 
above. 

The  Structure  of  Damsel-flies  {School  Work)^ 
— Compare  the  structure  of  a  damsel-fly  with  that  of 
the  dragon-fly  already  studied.  Note  especially  the 
form  of  the  head  with  the  eyes  projecting  like  the 
oarlocks  of  an  outrigged  skiff,  the  shape  of  the  wings, 
the  position  of  the  wings  when  at  rest,  and  the  form 
of  the  ovipositor  of  the  females.  Make  a  sketch  of 
the  head  seen  from  above.  Make  a  sketch  showing 
the  outline  of  each  of  the  wings  of  one  side.  Deter- 
mine the  sex  of  each  of  your  specimens  and  label 
them. 


POND   LIFE. 


99 


The  May-flies  {Field  Work). — Let  us  continue 
our  study  of  the  insects  that  fly  over  ponds.  In 
many  places,  at  certain  periods  of  the  year,  the  most 
abundant  of  these  are  the  May-flies.  These  are  very 
fragile  insects  with  large,  del- 
icate fore  wings,  with  the  hind 
wings  much  smaller  or  want- 
ing, and  with  the  abdomen 
furnished  at  its  caudal  end 
with  either  two  or  three  many- 
jointed,  threadlike  appendages 
(Fig.  86). 

Although  a  few  May-flies 
can  be  found  at  almost  any 
time  during  the  warmer  parts 
of  the  year,  in  each  locality 
there  are  certain  periods  dur- 
ing which  they  are  much  more 
abundant  than  at  other  times  ; 
then  they  are  apt  to  appear  in 
great  swarms.  This  period  is 
as  likely  to  be  in  June  or  July  as  in  May,  despite  the 
common  name  of  these  insects.  It  is  at  such  times 
that  a  study  should  be  made  of  their  habits.  If  you 
find  that  May-flies  are  abundant  at  any  time  and  you 
have  not  already  made  a  study  of  them,  it  will  be 
worth  while  to  postpone  the  study  of  any  other  in- 
sects and  devote  your  attention  to  these,  for  no  other 
insects  described  in  these  lessons  have  so  short  a  pe- 
riod of  flight  as  the  May-flies.  While  in.  the  field 
take  notes  on  the  following  points : — 

I.  The  flight  of  these  insects — contrast   it   with 
that  of  dragon-flies. 


Fig.  86. 


100 


INSECT   LIFE. 


2.  The  food  of  May-flies — can  you  find  any  that 
are  catching  other  insects  or  that  are  feeding  on 
plants? 

3.  The  young  of  May-flies  live  in  the  water.  Try 
to  observe  the  emergence  of  the  insects  from  the 
water. 

4.  If  you  succeed  in  observing  the  emergence  of 
the  winged  insect  from  the  water,  collect  the  empty 
nymph  skin  and,  if  possible,  the  winged  individual 
that  emerged  from  it.  These  should  be  preserved 
together  in  your  collection ;  they  will  serve  to  con- 
nect the  adult  with  its  early  stages. 

5.  May-flies  differ  from  all  other  insects  in  that 
they  shed  the  skin  once  after  they  are  able  to  fly. 
The  winged  May -fly  when  it  emerges  from  the 
water  is  not  a  fully  developed  adult,  but  is  what  is 
termed  a  subimago.  The  subimago  state  is  of  short 
duration ;  sometimes  it  lasts  only  a  few  minutes,  but 
in  other  species  it  lasts  twenty-four  hours  or  more. 

Watch  the  May-flies  that  are  resting  on  plants  or 
other  objects  near  the  shore  and  try  to  observe  the 
molting  of  the  subimago.  If  you  succeed,  collect 
the  adult  or  imago  and  the  empty  subimago  skin, 
and  preserve  them  together  in  your  collection.  Even 
if  you  fail  to  observe  the  molting,  you  ought  to  be 
able  to  collect  subimago  skins  if  the  May-flies  are  at 
all  abundant. 

6.  Endeavor  to  observe  the  laying  of  the  eggs. 
Some  May-flies  lay  their  eggs  in  masses;  specimens 
are  often  found  in  which  there  project  from  the  cau- 
dal end  of  the  body  two  parallel,  subcylindrical 
masses  of  eggs,  for  in  these  insects  the  two  oviducts 
open  separately. 


POND   LIFE.  lOi 

7.  In  the  evening,  examine  the  street  lamps  or 
other  lights,  and  note  the  extent  to  which  the  May- 
flies are  attracted  to  them. 

The  Habits  of  May-flies  {School  Work). — Write 
an  account  of  what  you  have  learned  regarding  May- 
flies. Copy  the  following  label  and  place  it  above 
the  May-flies  in  your  collection  (see   footnote,  page 

93):- 

Order  Ephemerida  (Eph-e-mer'i-da). 
T/ie  May -flies. 

The  Structure  of  May-flies  {School  Work).— 
It  is  quite  difficult  to  preserve  specimens  of  May- 
flies in  good  condition  for  study,  as  they  shrivel 
greatly  on  drying.  We  will  call  attention,  therefore, 
to  only  a  few  of  the  more  important  points  in  the 
structure  of  these  insects. 

1.  Study  the  head  and  observe  the  following: 
The  very  large  compound  eyes — in  dried  specimens 
these  are  apt  to  be  more  or  less  shriveled,  and  in 
some  kinds  of  May-flies  each  compound  eye  is  di- 
vided into  two  distinct  parts ;  the  simple  eyes  or 
ocelli — in  some  of  our  more  common  species  these  are 
much  larger  than  is  usual  with  insects;  the  mouth- 
parts — these  are  absent  or  represented  by  minute 
rudiments.  May-flies  take  no  food  during  their  very 
short  existence  in  the  adult  state.  Make  a  sketch  of 
the  head  seen  from  above. 

2.  Study  the  wings  and  make  a  sketch  showing 
the  outline  of  each  of  the  two  wings  of  one  side. 

3.  Write  out  a  statement  of  the  points  of  resem- 
blance and  the  points  of  difference  between  the  wings 
of  May-flies  and  those  of  dragon-flies. 


102 


INSECT    LIFE. 


4.  Make  a  sketch  of  a  May-fly  seen  from  above. 
The  Stone-flies  [Field  Work). — Among  the  in- 
sects that  are  common  flying  about  ponds  and  streams 

are  the  stone-flies. 
Fig.  87  represents 
one  of  our  larger 
species  with  the 
wings  of  one  side 
spread  out.  When 
at  rest  these  in- 
sects fold  their 
wings  upon  the 
back,  as  shown  on 
the  left  side  of  the 
figure.  Most  of 
our  species  are 
much  smaller  than 
the  one  represented  here,  but  they  can  be  recognized 
as  stone-flies  by  their  resemblance  in  form  to  this  one. 
The  body  is  flattened,  elongate,  and  with  the  sides 
nearly  parallel ;  the  prothorax  is  large  ;  the  antennae 
are  long,  tapering,  and  many  jointed  ;  in  most  species 
the  caudal  end  of  the  abdomen  is  furnished  with  two 
slender  appendages.  Stone-flies  are  so  called  because 
they  pass  their  early  stages  beneath  stones  in  streams 
and  ponds. 

1.  Collect  as  many  kinds  of  stone-flies  as  you  can, 
saving  several  specimens  of  each  kind. 

2.  Make  notes  on  their  powers  of  flight. 

3.  Make   notes   on   the   localities    in    which    they 
occur. 

4.  Try  to  discover  the  method  in  which  they  lay 
their  eggs. 


pond  life.  103 

The  Structure  and  Habits  of  Stone-flies 
{School  Work). — Write  an  account  of  what  you  have 
learned  regarding-  stone-flies.  Describe  first  the  ap- 
pearance of  these  insects ;  illustrate  this  by  two 
sketches,  one  showing  the  appearance  of  the  insect  as 
seen  from  above  with  the  wings  closed,  the  other  an 
enlarged  view  of  the  head  and  prothorax  as  seen  from 
above,  and  compare  the  eyes  and  antennas  with  those 
of  dragon-flies  and  May-flies.  In  the  second  part  of 
the  account  state  what  you  have  learned  regarding 
the  habitat  and  habits  of  stone-flies. 

Copy  the  following  label  and  place  it  above  the 
stone-flies  in  your  collection  (see  footnote,  page  3) : 

Order  Plecoptera  (Ple-cop'te-ra). 
The  Stone  flies. 

Other  Insects  that  fly  Over  Ponds  {Field 
Work). — During  the  field  days,  when  you  are  studying 
pond  life  collect  any  insects  that  you  find  flying  over 
ponds  or  resting  near  them.  These  should  be  care- 
fully pinned,  labeled,  and  preserved  in  your  collec- 
tion for  future  study. 

INSECTS    THAT    LIVE    ON    THE    SURFACE    OF    WATER. 

In  the  excursions  that  have  been  made  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  pond  life,  the  pupils  have  proba- 
bly observed  certain  insects  running  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  as  if  it  were  a  firm  pavement. 
We  purpose  to  study  carefully  some  of  these  insects, 
but  before  doing  so  it  will  be  well  to  endeavor  to 
understand  how  it  is  that  these  creatures  can  per- 
form the  apparent  miracle  of  walking  upon  water. 


I04 


INSECT    LIFE. 


The  Surface-film  of  Water  (School  Work). — 
One  of  the  astonishing  facts  to  be  learned  by  the 
study  of  pond  life  is  that  many  insects  are  able  to 
walk  upon  water,  and  equally  strange  is  the  fact  that 
certain  other  insects  that  live  within  water  can  hang 
from  its  upper  surface  without  any  effort  to  keep 
themselves  there,  although  their  bodies  are  heavier 
than  water. 

These  things  seem  to  contradict  the  well-known 
law  of  Nature  that  an  object  can  not  float  in  a  liquid 
unless  it  is  lighter  than  that  liquid.  And  in  truth 
it  is  a  fact  that  under  certain  conditions  objects  that 
are  much  heavier  than  the  liquid  upon  which  they 
are  placed  will  float. 

This  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  presence  of  what 
has  been  termed  the  surface-film  of  liquids.  It  has 
been  shown  by  many  experiments,  some  of  which 
are  given  below,  that  on  the  surface  of  water,  and 
other  liquids  also,  there  is  a  film  of  the  liquid  which 
tends  to  contract  as  if  it  were  a  membrane  stretched 
equally  in  all  directions.  The  explanation  of  the  for- 
mation of  this  film  is  a  difficult  matter,  which  can  not 
be  undertaken  here.  It  is  discussed  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced works  on  physics  and  in  some  of  the  larger 
cyclopaedias  under  the  head  of  capillary  attraction. 
The  action  of  the  surface-film  can  be  seen  by  the 
following  experiments : 

Experiment  i. — Take  a  fine  needle  and  carefully 
lay  it  on  the  surface  of  a  glass  of  water.  To  do  this 
hold  the  needle  in  a  horizontal  position  and  bring  it 
as  near  the  water  as  you  can  without  touching  the 
water  and  then  drop  the  needle.  If  the  experiment 
be  performed    with  sufficient  care,  the  needle  will 


POND    LIFE.  105 

float.  Steel  is  seven  times  heavier  than  water  ;  never- 
theless, in  this  experiment  we  see  a  piece  of  steel 
floating  on  the  surface  of  water. 

Experiment  2. — Take  a  needle  that  you  have  caused 
to  float  on  the  water  and  wet  it  thoroughly.  Now 
you  will  be  unable  to  make  it  float  so  long  as  it  is 
wet.  This  experiment  indicates  that  one  of  the  con- 
ditions of  floating  of  a  heavy  object  is  that  it  shall 
not  be  wet  by  the  liquid. 

Experiment  J. — Take  needles  of  different  sizes  or 
short  pieces  of  different  sizes  of  wire,  and,  having 
them  perfectly  dry,  try  to  make  them  float.  In  this 
experiment  it  is  well  to  lay  the  piece  of  w4re  across 
the  tines  of  a  fork  and  lower  it  gently  into  the  water. 
It  will  be  found  that  only  the  smaller  needles  or 
pieces  of  wire  will  float.  This  experiment  indicates 
that  a  second  condition  of  the  floating  of  a  heavy 
object  is  that  it  shall  be  comparatively  small. 

Experime7it  4.. — Take  a  glass  of  water  and  place  it 
on  a  stand  so  that  you  can  look  through  the  side  of 
the  glass  at  the  surface  of  the  water  both  from  above 
and  below.  Place  a  needle  upon  the  water,  the 
larger  the  needle  the  better,  provided  it  will  float. 
By  studying  the  floating  object  carefully  it  will  be 
seen  that  it  rests  in  a  little  hollow  with  sloping  sides, 
the  surface  of  the  water  being  indented  as  if  it  were 
covered  with  a  membrane  stretched  across  it. 

There  are  many  other  interesting  phenomena  that 
are  explained  by  a  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the 
surface-film  of  liquids,  but  their  study  belongs  to  the 
subject  of  physics  ;  only  so  much  has  been  introduced 
here  as  is  necessary  to  understand  what  we  will  see 
in  our  study  of  pond  life. 


Io6  INSECT    LIFE. 

The  Water-striders  (Field  WorE):—'^o\\  that  we 
have  studied  the  surface-fihn  of  water,  let  us  visit 
some  pond  or  stream  and  observe  those  insects  that 
live  upon  it.  Chief  among  these  are  the  water- 
striders,  the  long-legged  creatures  that  skate  over 
the  surface  as  if  they  had  no  weight. 

There  are  a  good  many  species  of  water-striders, 
and  several  quite  distinct  types,  differing  in  size,  in 

the  form  of  the  body, 
and  in  the  relative 
length  of  the  legs.  One 
of  the  more  common 
forms  is  represented  by 
Fig.  88.  Try  to  find 
some  of  these,  for  ow- 
ing to  their  larger  size 
it  will  be  easier  to  ob- 
serve them  than  other  kinds ;  but  if  you  are  unable 
to  find  these,  study  any  water-striders  that  you  can 
find  and  make  notes  for  an  account  of  them. 

1.  Water-striders  live  upon  both  ponds  and 
streams  ;  if  you  are  observing  them  upon  a  stream, 
note  what  portions  of  the  stream  they  prefer. 

2.  Do  they  occur  singly  or  in  colonies? 

3.  Are  they  shy  or  otherwise? 

4.  Are  they  disturbed  by  fish  ?  To  determine 
this  watch  them  w^here  there  are  fish,  and  throw 
grasshoppers  or  other  insects  into  the  water  and  note 
if  the  fish  are  more  apt  to  jump  at  these  than  at  the 
water-striders. 

5.  Throw  some  insect  into  the  water  where  there 
are  no  fish,  but  near  some  water-striders,  and  note 
the  actions  of  the  latter.     What  is  likely  to  happen 


A  water- strider. 


POND   LIFE.  107 

to  an  insect  that  falls  into  the  water  where  there  are 
water-striders? 

6.  Watch  the  water-striders  and  learn  if  they  will 
jump  from  the  water  to  catch  insects  that  fly  near  it. 

7.  Remain  quiet  at  the  shore  of  the  pond  or 
stream  till  the  water-striders  approach  near  enough 
to  be  observed  closely  and  determine  what  portions 
of  the  body  rest  upon  the  water. 

8.  Observe  the  dimples  in  the  water  where  the 
feet  rest  on  the  surface. 

9.  When  the  sun  is  shining-  brightly,  find  some 
water-striders  where  the  water  is  shallow  and  ob- 
serve on  the  bottom  of  the  pool  the  shadows  of  the 
dimples  in  the  water  made  by  the  feet  of  the  insects. 
Note  that  each  shadow  is  surrounded  by  a  golden 
ring  of  light.  The  more  advanced  pupils  should  be 
able  to  explain  the  cause  of  this  ring  of  light.  Note 
that  there  is  no  ring  of  light  about  the  shadow  cast 
by  the  body  ;  why  is  this  so  ? 

10.  Make  a  sketch  showing  the  outline  of  the 
body  and  the  position  of  each  of  the  legs  and  the  an- 
tennae when  the  insect  is  at  rest. 

11.  Discover  which  pair  of  legs  are  the  chief 
organs  of  locomotion  in  the  striding  of  these  insects. 

12.  Collect  as  many  kinds  of  water-striders  as 
possible,  saving  several  specimens  of  each  species. 
Kill  them  in  your  cyanide  bottle  and  then  pin  them 
on  your  return  home. 

Water-striders  are  dimorphic — that  is,  there  are 
two  distinct  forms  of  fully  developed  individuals  in 
each  species.  One  form  is  winged,  the  other  wing- 
less. Try  to  procure  both  the  winged  and  the  wing- 
less form  of  each  species  collected.     The  presence 


I08  INSECT   LIFE. 

of  winged  forms  probably  enables  these  insects  to 
spread  overland  from  one  pond  or  stream  to  another, 
but  the  conditions  under  which  winged  forms  occur 
are  not  well  understood.  Sometimes  a  third  form 
occurs  in  which  the  adult  has  short  wings.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  nymphs  of  the  winged  forms 
have  short  wing-pads,  but  these  differ  in  appearance 
from  perfect  wings. 

The  Families  of  Water-striders  (School  Work). 
— There  are  two  closely  related  families  of  bugs  the 
members  of  either  of  which  could  well  be  called 
water-striders  on  account  of  their  mode  of  life.  In  one 
family  the  legs  are  much  longer  than  in  the  other,  and 
better  fitted  for  the  gliding  motion  characteristic  of 
water-striders  ;  the  members  of  this  family  are  termed 
*'the  water-striders."  In  the  other  family  the  legs 
are  shorter  and  fitted  for  running  rather  than  rowing  ; 
as  the  body  is  broadest  across  the  prothorax  in 
these  insects,  they  are  termed  "  the  broad-shoul- 
dered water-striders." 

Separate  from  the  others  those  specimens  of  water- 
striders  in  your  collection  in  which  the  second  and 
third  pairs  of  legs  are  extremely  long  and  slender, 
and  in  which  the  body  is  widest  back  of  the  pro- 
thorax.  If  this  family  is  well  represented  in  your 
locality,  you  should  have  some  species  in  which  the 
body  is  long  and  slender,  as  in  Fig.  88,  and  also  some 
smaller  species  in  which  the  body  is  oval  in  outline. 

Copy  the  following  label  and  fasten  it  above  the 
place  where  the  water-striders  are  to  be  put  in  your 
collection : — 

Order  Hemiptera  (He-mip'te-ra). 
The  Bugs. 


POND    LIFE.  lOQ 

Place  immediately  below  this  label  the  following 
one,  and  then  arrange  the  water-striders  just  selected 
beneath  this  second  label ;  put  each  species  of  water- 
strider  in  a  row  by  itself: — 

Family  Hydrobatid.^  (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae). 
The  Water-striders. 

Fig.  89  represents  a  member  of  the  second  family 
of  water-striders,  somewhat  enlarged.  These  insects 
can  be  distinguished  from  the  true 
water-striders  by  their  comparatively 
short  legs  and  broad  prothorax.  If 
you  have  any  specimens  of  this  fami- 
ly arrange  them  just  after  the  true 
water-striders  and  below  the  follow-  Fig.  89. —  a  broad- 

1    ,     1  shouldered  water- 

ing label  :—  strider. 

Family  Veliid^  (Ve-li'i-dae). 
The  Broad-shouldered  Water-striders. 

The  Habits  of  Water-striders  {School  Work). 
— Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned  regard- 
ing water-striders. 

The  Structure  of  Water-striders  {School 
Work). — Select  one  of  the  true  water-striders,  prefer- 
ably a  large  one  like  that  represented  by  Fig  88,  and 
study  the  following  parts. 

I.  The  body  is  covered  with  microscopic  hairs, 
those  on  the  lower  side  are  longer  and  usually  silvery 
white  in  color.  These  doubtless  form  a  waterproof 
coating,  and  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  insects, 
causing  them  to  appear  like  white-bottomed  boats 
when  on  the  water. 


jIO  INSECT    LIFE. 

2.  The  head  is  inserted  in  the  prothorax  up  to 
the  base  of  the  eyes.  The  eyes,  though  small  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  dragon-fly,  are  really  quite 
large  and  prominent ;  their  shape  and  position  are 
such  that  the  insect  can  readily  see  in  all  directions. 
The  antennse  are  long  and  consist  of  four  segments. 
The  beak  arises  from  the  forward  end  of  the  head  ; 
when  not  in  use  it  usually  extends  backward  between 
the  fore  legs.  It  consists  of  four  segments;  the  sec- 
ond segment,  however,  is  quite  short  and  liable  to 
be  overlooked.  A  bristlelike  piercing  organ  can 
usually  be  seen  protruding  from  the  tip  of  the  beak. 
Make  a  drawing  of  a  side  view  of  the  head,  show- 
ing the  form  of  the  head,  eyes,  antennas,  and 
beak. 

3.  Study  the  position  and  form  of  the  legs.  The 
fore  legs  are  placed  well  forward,  and  are  stouter 
than  the  others ;  they  are  used  for  seizing  and  hold- 
ing the  prey.  The  middle  and  hind  legs  are  placed 
far  back,  and  are  the  chief  organs  of  locomotion,  the 
middle  legs  being  used  as  oars  and  the  hind  legs  as 
rudders.  A  striking  peculiarity  of  the  legs  in  the  two 
families  of  water-striders  is  that  the  last  segment  of 
the  tarsus  is  split  at  the  end  and  the  claws  are  in- 
serted in  this  cleft ;  this  is  most  easily  seen  in  the 
stouter  fore  legs  than  in  the  threadlike  middle  and 
hind  legs  of  the  true  water-striders.  In  the  broad- 
shouldered  water-striders  it  is  easily  seen  on  any  of 
the  legs.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  tarsus  of  one  of  the 
legs,  showing  this  peculiarity. 

4.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  lower  side  of  the  abdo- 
men, noting  carefully  the  form  of  the  segments  near 
the  caudal  end. 


POND   LIFE.  Ill 

5.  Study  all  the  specimens  you  have  of  water- 
striders  and  see  if  you  can  separate  the  sexes. 

The  Whirligig-beetles  {Field  Work).~'^o  lad 
who  has  loitered  much  by  ponds  or  wandered  along 
the  margins  of  brooks  with  open  eyes  can  have 
failed  to  see  the  whirligig-beetles,  those  social  fel- 
lows that  gather  in  large  numbers  and  chase  each 
other  round  and  round  in  graceful  curves  with 
wonderful  rapidity.  These  beetles  are  oval  or  ellip- 
tical in  form,  more  or  less  flattened,  and  usually  of 
a  very  brilliant,  bluish-black  color  above,  wath  a 
metallic  luster ;  one  of  our  common  forms  is 
represented  by  Fig.  90,  but  some  of  the  smal- 
ler species  are  proportionally  longer  and  more 
convex. 

Seek  for  specimens  of  whirligig-beetles  on 
the  surface  of  the  ponds  and  streams  in  your 
locality  and,  when  found,  watch  them  carefully,  note- 
book in  hand,  and  record  all  that  you  can  see  of  their 
ways. 

Take  with  you  on  this  field  trip  some  empty  bot- 
tles, in  which  to  bring  home  living  specimens,  and  an 
insect  net ;  you  will  need  the  latter  in  catching  these 
wary  creatures. 

Note  the  peculiar  odor  emitted  by  the  insects 
when  caught ;  this  is  caused  by  the  milky  fluid  which 
the  insects  emit  from  various  joints  of  the  body,  and 
is  probably  a  means  of  defense. 

As  these  insects  can  be  easily  kept  alive  in  aquaria, 
we  will  make  a  more  careful  study  of  their  habits  in 
confinement. 

Comparatively  few  whirligig-beetles  can  be  found 
in  the  spring ;  these  are  individuals  that  have  sur- 


112  INSECT    LIFE. 

vived  the  winter.  A  new  generation  begins  to 
appear  early  in  the  summer,  and  they  are  most 
abundant  late  in  August  or  early  in  September. 
As  cold  weather  comes  on  they  disappear,  bury- 
ing themselves  in  mud  at  the  roots  of  water  plants 
for  their  winter  sleep.  But  they  can  be  kept 
active  in  aquaria  in  warm  rooms  long  after  all 
have  disappeared  from  the  surface  of  ponds  and 
streams. 

On  your  return  from  the  field  trip  prepare  an 
aquarium  with  sand  or  gravel  in  the  bottom  and  a 
few  water  plants  anchored  in  this  soil.  Put  the  living 
whirligig-beetles  into  this  aquarium,  and  cover  it  so 
that  the  insects  can  not  escape. 

Put  in  a  killing  bottle  some  specimens  to  be  used 
for  a  study  of  the  structure  of  these  insects. 

The  Structure  of  Whirligig-beetles  {School 
Work). —  I.  Pin  the  specimens  in  your  killing  bottle, 
so  that  they  may  be  easily  handled  without  injury  to 
them,  putting  the  pin  through  the  right  wing-cover 
a  short  distance  from  its  base. 

2.  Study  the  appearance  of  one  of  these  insects 
when  seen  from  above.  Note  that  the  hinder  part 
of  the  body  is  covered  by  a  pair  of  horny  wing-cov- 
ers or  elytra,  which  meet  in  a  straight  line  along 
the  middle  of  the  back.  This  type  of  wing-covers 
is  the  mark  "by  which  beetles  are  most  easily  recog- 
nized. 

3.  Study  the  head  as  seen  from  above  and  make  a 
drawing  of  this  view,  showing  the  following  parts : 
The  upper  lip — a  horny  fiap  projecting  from  the  ex- 
treme front  end  of  the  head  ;  the  clypeus — a  narrow 
piece  extending  crosswise  between  the  upper  lip  and 


POND    LIFE.  11^ 

the  chief  part  of  the  head  ;  the  antennge — these  are 
unusually  short  and  thick  (Fig.  91   represents  one  of 
the  antennae  of  a  whirligig-beetle  greatly 
enlarged) ;    the  compound  eyes — these    are 
quite  prominent,  and  are  situated  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  margin  of  the  head. 

4.  Study  the  head  as  seen  from  below, 
a  very  remarkable  thing  will  be  seen — namely,  a 
pair  of  large  compound  eyes  in  addition  to  the  pair 
already  observed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  head.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  these  insects  really 
have  only  two  compound  eyes,  like  other  insects  ;  but 
each  eye  is  divided  within  the  head,  one  part  extend- 
ing to  the  upper  surface  of  the  head  and  the  other  to 
the  lower  surface.  What  peculiarity  in  the  mode  of 
life  of  the  whirligig-beetles  renders  this  arrangement 
of  eyes  desirable  ? 

5.  Study  the  mouth-parts  and  observe  that  in- 
stead of  a  beak  for  sucking,  as  with  the  water-strid- 
ers,  these  insects  have  jaws  fitted  for  biting. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  the  front  legs,  and 
label  the  following  parts  :  coxa,  trochanter,  femur, 
tibia,  tarsus,  claws. 

7.  The  sexes  of  whirligig-beetles  can  be  distin- 
guished by  the  fact  that  in  the  males  the  segments  of 
the  tarsus  of  the  fore  legs  are  flattened  and  furnished 
with  a  spongy  cushion  of  hairs  beneath,  while  in 
the  females  the  segments  are  more  nearly  cylindrical 
and  do  not  bear  cushions.  Separate  the  sexes  of 
these  insects  in  your  collection. 

8.  Study  the  middle  and  hind  legs  and  observe 
their  strangely  modified  form.  While  the  fore  legs 
are  oarlike  in  form,  these  are  modified  into  short  and 


114  INSECT    LIFE. 

very  broad  paddles.     Fig.  92  represents  the  form  of 
one  of  these. 

9.  Remove  with  a  pin  one  of  the  wing-covers  and 
observe  the  large  membranous  wing 
compactly  folded  beneath  it.  Although 
these  insects  are  commonly  seen  only  on 

Fig.  92.  ^     water,  they  have  good  powers  of  flight, 
and    migrate   from    pond    to    pond    by 
means  of  their  wings.     I  have  taken  them  at  electric 
lights  far  from  any  water. 

10.  The  various  kinds  of  beetles  taken  together 
constitute  the  order  Coleoptera,  and  the  whirligig- 
beetles  form  the  family  Gyrinidas  of  this  order. 
Write  the  two  following  labels  and  place  them  above 
the  whirligig-beetles  in  your  collection  : — 

Order  Coleoptera  (Co-le-op'te-ra). 
The  Beetles. 

Family  Gyrinid^  (Gy-rin'i-dae). 
The  Whirligig-beetles. 

The  Habits  of  Whirligig- beetles  {^School 
Work). — Watch  the  living  specimens  that  you  have 
in  an  aquarium  and  learn  all  you  can  of  their  habits. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  points  to  be  observed  : 
Compare  their  attitude  when  at  rest  with  that  of  a 
water-strider.  Describe  their  method  of  locomotion. 
Describe  their  actions  when  frightened.  Can  you 
see  any  indications  of  their  method  of  breathing 
when  under  water?  How  do  they  remain  beneath 
the  water?  How  do  they  rise  to  the  surface?  In 
what  way  do  the  beetles  endeavor  to  escape  from 
the  water?     Try  to  discover  what   they  will  eat — 


POND    LIFE. 


115 


there  is  some  difference  of  opinion   among  scientific 
writers  on  this  point. 

After  observing  these  insects  at  intervals  for  sev- 
eral days  write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned 
regarding  them. 

INSECTS  THAT   REST   AT   THE  SURFACE  BUT   SWIM  BENEATH. 

In  our  studies  of  pond  life  up  to  this  time  we 
have  observed  some  of  the  insects  that  fi}^  over 
ponds  and  some  that  live  upon  the  surface  of  water, 
but  a  far  greater  number  of  insects  live  within 
the  water.  Some  of  these  are  fitted  for  a  purely 
aquatic  life,  but  many  find  it  necessary  to  come  to 
the  surface  from  time  to  time  to  get  a  supply  of  air. 
This  latter  class  of  insects,  as  a  rule,  rest  at  the  sur- 
face in  such  a  position  that  they  have  access  to  the 
air  above  the  water,  and  only  swim  beneath  when 
alarmed  or  when  in  search  of  food.  It  is  this  class  of 
insects,  those  that  rest  at  the  surface  but  swim  be- 
neath, that  we  are  to  study  now. 

A  Collecting  Trip. — Provide  yourselves  with 
insect  nets  and  a  supply  of  empty  bottles  for  bring- 
ing back  living  insects.  Go  to  some  pond  or  stream, 
and,  resting  quietly  on  the  shore,  try  to  observe  some 
of  the  insects  that  live  within  the  water  but  rest  at 
the  surface.  If  there  is  no  convenient  pond  and  you 
go  to  a  stream  for  this  purpose,  choose  the  more 
quiet  portions  of  the  stream,  and  preferably  the 
deeper  pools  and  those  in  which  plants  are  growing. 
Approach  the  water  very  quietly  so  as  not  to  frighten 
the  insects.  Often  when  nothing  is  to  be  seen  at 
first  the  observer  will  be  rewarded  by  a  sight  of 
the  desired  objects  if  he  will  sit  very  still  for  a  time. 


Il6  INSECT    LIFE. 

After  learning  what  you  can  by  watching,  sweep 
the  vegetation  beneath  the  surface  of  the  water  with 
your  net,  and  in  this  w^ay  collect  as  many  kinds  of 
insects  as  possible.  Put  the  insects  into  clean  bot- 
tles so  that  they  may  be  kept  alive. 

On  your  return  prepare  several  aquaria  with  sand 
or  gravel  on  the  bottom  and  aquatic  plants  anchored 
in  the  sand  ;  if  practicable  prepare  as  many  aquaria 
as  you  have  kinds  of  insects,  so  that  one  kind  shall 
not  destroy  another.  But  in  order  to  observe  pre- 
daceous  insects  capture  their  prey  it  is  necessary  to 
put  other  insects  with  them  when  you  are  ready  to 
make  the  observation.  After  the  insects  have  been 
placed  in  the  aquaria  you  will  soon  be  able  to  learn 
which  ones  belong  to  the  class  that  rest  at  the  surface 
but  swim  beneath. 

The  Predaceous  Diving-beetles  {School  Work). 
— If  a  collecting  trip  like  that  outlined  above  is  a 
successful  one,  there  are  almost  sure  to  be  several 
kinds  of  beetles  among  the  insects  collected.  These 
can  be  recognized  by  the  horny  wing-covers,  w^hich 
meet  in  a  straight  line  along  the  middle  of  the  back. 
If  we  omit  certain  small  beetles  which  are  not  likely 
to  be  studied  by  the  beginner,  the  beetles  collected 
in  this  way  will  represent  only  two  families ;  one  of 
these  families  is  the  Dytiscidse,  or  predaceous  diving- 
beetles.  The  members  of  this  family  can  be  recog- 
nized by  the  fact  that  when  at  rest  they  hang  head 
downward  with  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  Figs.  93  and  94  represent  two  of 
the  larger  members  of  this  family.  There  are,  how- 
ever, many  small  species,  measuring  less  than  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  length,  which  can  be  found  in 


POND   LIFE.  11^ 

almost  any  pond.     If  you  can  obtain  specimens  of  the 
larger  ones,  they  will  be  best  for  the  purposes  of  study. 

Some  specimens  should 
be  kept  alive  in  aquaria  for 
a  study  of  their  habits,  and 
some  should  be  killed  and 
pinned  for  a  study  of  their 
structure. 

Place  the  pinned  speci- 
mens when    not   in    use    in 

.  Fig.  93.  Fig.  94. 

your     collection     under    a 

copy  of  the  following  label  and  immediately  after  the 

whirligig-beetles  : —  ^ 

Family  Dytiscid^  (Dy-tis'ci-dae). 
T/ie  Predaceous  Diving-beetles. 

Whenever  convenient  to  do  so,  watch  the  diving- 
beetles  and  learn  all  you  can  regarding  their  habits. 
Make  a  memorandum  of  whatever  you  learn ;  the 
hints  given  on  page  1 14  for  the  study  of  the  whirligig- 
beetles  will  be  useful  here.  As  these  diving-beetles 
are  predaceous,  they  may  be  fed  with  other  insects 
or  bits  of  raw  meat.  If  properly  cared  for,  they  can 
be  kept  alive  in  aquaria  for  a  long  time,  even  several 
years. 

The  Structure  of  the  Predaceous  Diving- 
beetles  {School  Work). — Select  for  study  specimens 
of  the  largest  species  of  predaceous  diving-beetles  in 
your  collection  and  observe  the  form  of  the  following 
parts  : — 

*  No  effort  is  made  in  these  outlines  to  indicate  a  natural  sequence 
of  the  families  studied.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  begin- 
ners to  place  each  family  under  the  order  to  which  it  belongs,  placing 
first  those  studied  first. 


IlS  INSECT    LIFE. 

1.  The  body  as  a  whole.  Observe  its  evenly 
rounded  outlines,  and  consider  how  well  fitted  it  is 
for  gliding  through  the  water. 

2.  The  antenucG.     These  are  inserted  immediately 

in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  are  threadlike  in 
form,  each  consistino-  of  twelve  similar  ses:- 
ments  (Fig.  95).  The  form  of  the  antennae  is 
an  important  characteristic  of  these  insects, 
for  by  it  they  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
Fig  q:;  ^vater-scavenger  beetles,  which  they  closely 
resemble  in  general  appearance. 

3.  The  hind  legs.  These  are  fitted  especially  for 
swimming,  being  long  and  more  or  less  oarlike ;  the 
tarsus  is  flattened  and  fringed  with  hairs,  and  the 
segments  of  it  taper  evenly  from  its  base  to  the 
claws.     ^lake  a  drawing  of  one  of  these  legs. 

4.  The  middle  legs.  These  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  the  usual  form  of  the  legs  of  insects,  except 
that  in  the  males  of  certain  species  the  first  three 
segments  of  the  tarsus  are  much  wider  than  the 
others  and  furnished  with  cushions  beneath. 

5.  The  fore  legs.  In  the  females  these  legs  are 
also  of  the  usual  form.  But  in  the  males  of  our  com- 
mon larger  species  the  first  three  segments  of  the 
tarsus  are  dilated  and  form  a  circular  disk,  upon  the 
under  side  of  which  are  little  cuplike  suckers.  These 
suckers  differ  in  size  and  arrans^ement  in  different 
genera  ;  Fig.  96  represents  a  tarsus  of  Dytisais  {Dy- 
tis'oiis). 

6.  Examine  the  fore  legs  of  all  of  your  pinned 
specimens  of  the  larger  diving-beetles  and  separate 
the  sexes  of  each  species. 

7.  If  your  collection  is  sufficiently  full,  you  will 


POND   LIFE. 


119 


be  able  to  observe  that  in  some  species  there  are  two 
kinds  of  females,  one  havins:  smooth  wino^-covers, 
and  another  in  which  the  wing-cov- 
ers are  furnished  with  a  number  of 
deep  furrows  (Fig.  94). 

8.  Study  the  eyes  and  compare 
them  with  those  of  the  whirligig- 
beetles. 

.  Fig.  96. 

9.  Kemove  one  wmg-cover  and 

observe  the  large  wing  folded  beneath  it.  These 
beetles  can  fiy  well,  and  thus  migrate  from  pond  to 
pond. 

10.  Remove  the  wing  and  observe  the  spiracles 
or  breathing  holes  on  the  back  near  the  side  of  the 
body. 

11.  How  do  these  insects  breathe  when  under 
water  ? 

The  Habits  and  Structure  of  the  Preda- 
CEOUS  Diving-beetles  {School  Work). — Write  an  ac- 
count of  what  you  have  learned  regarding  these  in- 
sects. 

The  Water-tigers  {Field  and  School  Work). — 
These  rapacious  creatures  are  the  larv^  of  the  pre- 
daceous  diving-beetles,  and  are  found  in  the  ponds 
frequented  by  these  beetles.  In  sweeping  submerged 
plants  for  the  pond  insects  already  described  one  is 
quite  apt  to  obtain  water -tigers  also.  They  are 
elongated,  spindle-form  grubs,  with  large  sickle- 
shaped  mandibles.  Fig.  97  represents  one  of  our 
larger  species.  Put  the  specimens  that  you  collect 
into  an  aquarium  in  which  plants  are  growing,  so 
that  the  larvas  can  crawl  to  and  from  the  surface 
'easily. 


I20  INSECT    LIFE. 

Learn  what  you    can   regarding   the    habits    and 
structure    of    these    larvae.     Observe   their    favorite 


Fig.  97. — A  water-tiger. 

attitude  when  at  rest.  Learn  how  they  obtain  air. 
Place  other  aquatic  insects  with  them,  and  observe 
their  predaceous  habits  and  their  method  of  sucking 
the  blood  of  their  victims.  Note  their  methods  of 
locomotion. 

In  studying  their  structure,  observe  the  peculiar 
form  of  their  mandibles  ;  these  are  large,  sickle- 
shaped,  and  hollow,  with  a  slitlike  opening  near  the 
tip.  They  are  admirably  fitted  for  holding  the  prey 
and  at  the  same  time  sucking  the  blood  from  its 
body,  as  the  hollow  of  the  mandibles  communicates 
with  the  mouth.  Observe  the  spiracles  along  the 
sides  of  the  abdomen  ;  these  are  used  but  little  if  at 
all  during  the  larval  stage.  The  last  pair  of  spiracles 
are  just  beneath  the  tip  of  the  last  abdominal  seg- 
ment ;  it  is  throusfh  these  that  the  larva  obtains  its 
supply  of  air. 

Preserve  one  or  more  specimens  in  alcohol  and 
put  them  with  the  predaceous  diving-beetles  in  3^our 
collection. 

The  Water-scavenger  Beetles  {School  Work). — 
The  water-scavenger  beetles  are  common  in  quiet 
pools,  where  they  may  be  found  swimming  through 
the  water  or  crawling  among  the  plants  growing  on 
the  bottom.     If  the  collecting  trip  outlined  on  page 


POND   LIFE. 


121 


Fig.  98. — A  water- scaven- 
ger beetle. 


115,  was  a  successful  one,  there  are  probably  speci- 
mens of  these  beetles  in  your  aquaria ;  but  if  you  do 
not  already  have  specimens,  go 
into  the  field  again  and  sweep 
plants  growing  beneath  water 
with  an  insect  net  until  you  get 
specimens. 

Fig.  98  represents  the  largest      ^ 
of   our  water-scavenger    beetles ;    0 
but  we  have  in  this  country  many       ^ 
smaller  species,  and  the  majority 
of    them    measure  less  than  one 
half  inch  in  length. 

The  members  of  this  family 
differ  in  habits  from  other  com- 
mon aquatic  beetles  by  the  fact 
that  when  they  rest  at  the  surface  of  the  water  they 
keep  the  head  end  of  the  body  uppermost.  The 
most  easily  observed  difference  in  structure  is  in  the 
form  of  the  antennae.  These  are  club-shaped  (Fig. 
99) ;  they  are  inserted  immediately 
^^^^^^^  in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  are  usually 
^  concealed  beneath  the  eyes  and  pro- 

N^  thorax.     Care  must  be  taken  not  to 

iG-  99-  mistake  the  very  long  maxillary  palpi 

for  the  antennae;    these  palpi  arise  from  the  side  of 
the  mouth,  and  are  only  three-  or  four-jointed. 

Select  one  of  the  larger  species  of  water-scavenger 
beetles  and  make  a  study  of  living  specimens  in  an 
aquarium,  and  of  the  structure  of  pinned  specimens. 

Study  especially  the  method  in  which  they  obtain 
air,  and   the  manner  in  which  they  carry  it  when  be- 
neath the  water. 
9 


122  INSECT    LIFE. 

Observe  their  food  habits.  These  beetles  are  sup- 
posed to  live  chiefly  upon  decaying  vegetation  in  the 
water,  but  some  of  them'have  been  known  to  feed 
upon  other  insects  and  upon  snails. 

Arrange  your  pinned  specimens  under  a  copy  of 
the  following  label  and  immediately  after  the  Dyti- 
scidge  : — 

Family  Hydrophilid^  (Hyd-ro-phiri-dae). 
The  Water-scavenger  Beetles. 

The  members  of  this  family  form  cases  in  which 
the  eggs  are  laid.  Fig.  lOO  represents  one  of  these 
cases  attached  to  a  leaf.  If  you  find 
similar  cases  preserve  them  in  your  col- 
lection with  the  beetles  of  this  family,  or 
place  them  in  an  aquarium  and  try  to 
rear  the  young. 

The  Larvae  of  Water-scavenger 
Beetles  {Field  and  School  Work). — The 
larvae    of   the    water -scavensrer   beetles 

tiG.  lOO.  ^ 

live  beneath  the  surface  in  ponds  inhabi- 
ted by  the  adults,  and  may  be  captured  by  a  sweep- 
ing net  in  the  same  way  as  the  adults.  As  the}^  thrive 
well  in  aquaria,  their  habits  can  be  easily  observed. 
They  bear  some  resemblance  to  water-tigers  (Fig. 
97),  but  they  can  be  distinguished  from  them  by 
the  following  characters:  the  body  is  more  plump; 
the  mandibles  are  not  so  slender,  are  not  tubular,  and 
are  usually  furnished  with  one  or  more  teeth  ;  and 
the  abdomen,  in  all  the  species  that  I  have  studied,  is 
furnished  with  backward-projecting  spines  or  with 
filaments,  or  with  both. 

Study  the   habits  of   these  larvae.     Observe   the 


POND    LIFE.  123 

method  of  respiration,  the  ways  of  locomotion,  and 
the  nature  of  their  food.  Offer  them  both  livins:  and 
dead  insects,  snails,  and  meat.  Preserve  one  or  more 
larvse  in  alcohol,  and  put  them  with  the  adults  in  your 
collection. 

The  Back-swimmers  (School  J>F^r/^).— When  the 
different  kinds  of  insects  that  you  have  collected  by 
sweeping  submerged  plants  have  been  placed  in 
aquaria,  you  will  be  able  to  recognize  the  back-swim- 
mers by  the  fact  that  they  swim  up- 
side down.  One  of  these  insects  is 
represented  back  uppermost  by  Fig. 

lOI. 

The  back-swimmers  love  to  float 
at  the  surface  of  the  water.  Here  they  hang  motion- 
less, back  downward  in  a  slanting  position,  with  the 
tip  of  the  abdomen  at  the  surface,  and  the  head  con- 
siderably submerged.  When  in  this  position  the 
fore  and  middle  legs  are  slightly  bent,  so  that  the 
claws  are  at  the  surface,  as  if  the  insect  were  clinging 
to  the  ceiling  of  its  room  ;  while  the  longer,  oar-like 
hind  legs  are  nearly  straight,  and  project  down  into 
the  water  somewhat ;  here  they  are  held  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  beginning  of  a  stroke,  as  if  the  creature 
were  waiting  for  the  word  go ;  and  they  can  go  quick- 
ly and  rapidly  like  an  expert  sculler.  Often  they 
will  swim  to  the  bottom  of  the  pond,  where,  clinging 
to  a  stone  or  plant,  they  will  rest  quietly,  apparently 
as  much  at  home  as  when  at  the  surface. 

In  their  journeys  from  one  part  of  the  aquarium 
to  another,  they  are  forced  to  keep  their  oars  in  con- 
stant motion.  For  these  topsy-turvy  creatures  carry 
a  load  which  is  so  light  that  the  moment  they  stop 


124  INSECT    LIFE. 

rowing  they  fall  upward.  This  load  is  a  film  of 
air,  which  can  be  seen  shining  through  their  wings 
like  burnished  silver.  Knowing  this,  we  can  under- 
stand how  the  back-swimmers  can  remain  so  long 
at  the  bottom  of  the  aquarium  without  strangling. 
Occasionally  these  insects  v/ill  float  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  with  the  back  uppermost ;  when  in  this 
position  they  can  leap  into  the  air  from  the  water 
and  take  flight.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  keep 
aquaria  containing  them  covered,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  escape. 

Let  us  study  these  creatures  more  closely : 

1.  Kill  two  or  three  specimens  by  putting  them 
into  a  cyanide  bottle.  In  handling  back-swimmers 
care  must  be  taken  or  they  will  inflict  painful  stings 
with  their  sharp  and  powerful  beaks. 

2.  When  those  in  the  killing  bottle  are  dead,  pin 
them  so  that  they  can  be  handled  conveniently.  Put 
the  pin  through  the  three-cornered  piece  on  the  mid- 
dle of  the  back  (the  scutellum),  so  as  not  to  fasten 
the  wings  down. 

3.  Hold  the  insect  back  downward  and  note  the 
boat-shaped  form  of  the  body,  the  middle  of  the  back 
representing  the  keel. 

4.  Study  the  head  and  observe  the  following 
parts  :  The  eyes — these  are  very  large,  and  each  has 
two  large  scallops  in  the  outer  (lateral)  side.  The 
antennae — these  are  often  so  concealed  that  it  is  diffi= 
cult  to  see  them  ;  each  is  situated  just  behind  that 
scallop  of  the  eye  of  the  same  side  which  is  nearest 
the  mouth.  The  beak — this  projects  backward  be- 
tween the  legs.  What  insects  already  studied  have 
similar  mouth-parts  ?     To  w^hat  order  do  they  belong  ? 


POND   LIFE.  125 

5.  Study  the  legs  and  observe  that  the  fore  and 
middle  legs  are  furnished  with  claws,  and  are  fitted 
for  clinging  to  plants  and  stones  and  for  seizing  prey, 
while  the  hind  legs  are  destitute  of  claws  and  are 
fitted  for  swimming.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  the 
hind  legs,  also  one  of  a  fore  or  middle  leg. 

6.  Study  the  wings.  These  are  closely  folded 
over  the  back  of  the  abdomen.  The  fore  wings  are 
thick  and  heavy  at  the  base,  while  the  tips  are  thinner 
and  overlap.  This  type  of  wing  is  found  only  in  the 
order  Hemiptera  or  bugs.  Carefully  spread  the  fore 
wings  apart  with  a  pin  and  observe  the  hind  wings, 
which  are  beneath  them  ;  these  are  very  thin  and 
transparent ;  they  are  stiffened  by  a  few  stout  veins, 
and  are  folded  lengthwise  on  the  back  of  the  abdo- 
men ;  in  a  recently  killed  specimen  they  can  be 
spread  with  a  pin.  Like  most  other  pond  insects 
that  we  have  studied,  the  back-swimmers  can  leave 
the  water  and  fly  to  some  other  pond  if  they  do  not 
like  their  surroundings.  They  do  not  have  this  free- 
dom, however,  until  they  are  grown  up.  Early  in 
the  summer  back-swimmers  are  found  that  have  no 
wings ;  these  are  the  young  ones,  the  nymphs,  on 
which  the  wings  have  not  yet  grown.  If  you  have 
wingless  specimens  in  3^our  collection,  label  them 
Nymphs. 

7.  Study  the  belly  side  of  the  abdomen.  Along 
the  middle  line  there  is  a  prominent  ridge  which  is 
thickly  clothed  with  hairs,  and,  on  each  side  between 
this  ridge  and  the  edge  of  the  body  there  is  a  deep 
furrow.  Along  the  upper  edge  of  the  outside  of  this 
furrow,  and  a  short  distance  from  the  side  of  the 
body,  there  is  a  fringe  of  long  hairs.     Wet  a  pin  and 


126  INSECT    LIFE. 

with  it  carefully  brush  these  hairs  toward  the  side  of 
the  body  so  as  to  uncover  the  furrow.  When  this  is 
done  there  can  be  seen  on  the  sloping  outer  side  of 
the  furrow  a  small  hole  in  each  of  the  segments  of  the 
abdomen ;  these  are  the  spiracles  or  breathing  holes. 
Note  that  the  ridge  on  the  middle  of  the  belly  ends 
behind  in  a  sharp,  projecting  point ;  and  that  on  each 
side  the  edge  of  the  body  bearing  the  fringe  of  hairs 
also  ends  behind  in  a  similar  point,  between  which 
and  the  tip  of  the  abdomen  there  is  quite  a  space. 
This  space  serves  as  an  opening  to  an  air-chamber 
between  the  wings  and  the  abdomen. 

8.  Take  from  the  aquarium  two  or  three  living 
specimens  and  put  them  into  a  tumbler  which  is 
nearly  filled  with  water.  Be  careful  not  to  be  stung 
while  doing  this. 

9.  While  a  specimen  is  resting  quietly  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  study  it  with  a  lens.  Make  a  draw- 
ing showing  the  arrangement  of  the  hairs  on  the 
abdomen  of  the  living  specimen  while  in  the  water; 
this  arrangement  is  very  different  from  that  seen  on 
the  pinned  specimens  already  studied. 

10.  Observe,  on  the  living  specimen  in  the  water, 
the  hole  near  the  tip  of  the  body  through  which  the 
air  passes  into  the  chambers  beneath  the  fringes  of 
hairs  and  into  the  air-chamber  between  the  wings  and 
the  abdomen. 

11.  Study  the  pinned  specimens  again,  and  make 
sure  that  you  understand  how  the  air  can  pass  to 
the  chambers  referred  to  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph. 

12.  On  the  pinned  specimens  study  the  first  ab- 
dominal segment  on  the  belly  side,  and  observe  the 


POND    LIFE.  127 

little  furrow  on  each  side ;  these  are  air-passages 
extending-  between  the  chambers  on  the  belly  side 
of  the  abdomen  to  that  beneath  the  wings.  (In 
addition  to  the  spiracles  in  the  abdomen  there  are 
spiracles  in  the  thorax ;  but  as  these  are  exceed- 
ingly difficult  to  find,  they  will  not  be  described 
here.) 

13.  Observe  living  specimens  in  water  and  note 
that  they  carry  air  among  the  hairs  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  thorax,  and  in  the  spaces  between  the  head 
and  prothorax  and  between  the  prothorax  and  the 
mesothorax.  In  fact,  a  large  part  of  the  body  is  en- 
veloped with  air.  But  the  most  capacious  air-cham- 
bers are  those  inclosed  by  the  fringes  of  hairs  on  the 
belly  side  of  the  abdomen.  It  is  to  the  buoyant  ac- 
tion of  the  air  in  these  that  the  insect  owes  its  pecul- 
iar position  in  the  water. 

14.  If  you  will  watch  with  a  lens  living  specimens 
in  a  glass  of  water  you  will  be  able  to  see  them  force 
the  air  out  of  the  chambers  beneath  the  fringes  of  hair, 
using  their  hind  legs  for  this  purpose,  and  sometimes 
an  entire  fringe  will  be  lifted  like  a  lid. 

15.  Watch  living  specimens  as  they  rise  to  the 
surface  from  the  depths  of  the  aquarium,  and  see 
how  they  bump  against  the  surface  film. 

16.  Throw  living  flies  into  the  water  where  the 
back -swimmers  are  and  see  what  the  back -swim- 
mers will  do.  If  flies  are  abundant  in  the  room, 
observe  the  fate  of  those  that  come  to  drink  from  the 
water. 

17.  Kill  and  pin  several  specimens  of  each  species 
of  back-swimmers  that  you  have  collected,  and  ar- 
range them  in  your  collection  under  a  copy  of  the 


128 


INSECT    LIFE. 


following  label,  and  immediately  after  the  water- 
striders,  for  these  insects  also  belong  to  the  order 
Hemiptera : — 

Family  Notonectid^  (No-to-nec'ti-dse). 
The  Back-sivimmers. 


An  Essay  on  Back- swimmers  {School  Work). — 
Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned  regard- 
inof  back-swimmers. 

The  Water-scorpions  (Field  and  School  Work). — 
Among  the  strange  insects  that  live  in  ponds,  but 
come  to  the  surface  to  obtain  air,  are  the  water-scor- 
pions. These  are  not  so  com- 
mon as  the  back- swimmers, 
but  as  they  are  found  in  simi- 
lar situations,  there  may  be 
specimens  among  those  insects 
in  your  aquaria  collected  by 
sweeping  the  stems  of  sub- 
merged plants.     If  not,  search 

for   them    in    the 

places  whereback- 

swimmers         are 

found. 

There  are  two 

quite         different 

kinds    of     water- 
scorpions   in    this 

country.      In  one 

of     these,     called 
Nepa  (Ne'pa),  the  body  is  flat  and  broad  (Fig.  102)  ;  in 
the  other,  called  Ranatra  (Ran' a-trci),  the  body  is  long 
and  very  slender  (Fig.   103).     In  both,  the  hind  end 


Fig.  102. 


POND    LIFE. 


29 


of  the  body  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of  long,  slender, 
horny  appendages.  Each  of  these  is  grooved  on  the 
inner  side,  so  that  when  they  are  held  together  they 
form  a  tube  through  which  air  can  be  drawn.  They 
are  represented  in  this  position  in  the  figure  of  Ncpa 
and  separate  in  that  of  Ranatra. 

Another  interesting  feature  in  the  structure  of 
water-scorpions  is  the  form  of  the  fore  legs.  These 
are  fitted  for  grasping,  and  are  of  such  form  that 
each  is  a  complete  organ  by  itself.  The  coxa  is  long 
(in  the  case  of  Ranatra  it  is  very  long,  so  that  it  ap- 
pears like  a  femur),  and  the  femur  is  furnished  with 
a  groove  into  which  the  tibia  and  tarsus  fit  like  the 
blade  of  a  pocket-knife  into  the  handle. 

The  resemblance  in  form  to  a  scorpion  is  quite 
striking  in  the  case  of  Nepa  (Fig.  102),  but  it  is  much 
less  so  with  Ranatra. 

If  you  succeed  in  obtaining  water-scorpions,  keep 
them  in  an  aquarium  and  observe  their  habits.  Study 
their  method  of  obtaining  air,  the  way  in  which  they 
seize  their  prey,  their  modes  of  locomotion,  and  any 
other  features  of  their  life  history  that  you  can  observe. 

The  body  of  Nepa  is  very  flat,  enabling  the  insect 
to  hide  beneath  stones  and  rubbish  on  the  bottom  of 
ponds.  With  Ranatra  the  slender  form  of  the  body 
and  the  dirt  with  which  it  is  usually  covered  causes 
the  insect  to  resemble  a  dirty  stick.  This  resem- 
blance doubtless  aids  the  insect  greatly  in  the  cap- 
ture of  its  prey. 

Adult  water-scorpions  have  well-developed  wings 
which  reach  nearly  to  the  end  of  the  abdomen  ;  if 
you  find  wingless  individuals,  or  some  with  short 
wing-pads,  label  them  as  nymphs. 


I30 


INSECT    LIFE. 


The  water-scorpions  belong  to  the  order  Hemip- 
tera.  Place  your  pinned  specimens  under  a  copy  of 
the  following  label  and  immediately  after  the  back- 
swimmers  : — • 

Family  Nepid^  (Nep'i-dae). 
The  Water-scoi'pions. 

The  Giant  Water-bugs  {Field  and  School  Work). 
— These  are   common  insects  in  quiet  ponds.     Fig. 

104  represents  one  of  the 
larger  species,  and  Fig  105 
a  smaller  one.  All  of  them 
can  fly  well  in  the  adult 
state,  and  some  are  frequent- 
ly attracted  to  lights  in  great 
numbers.  These  are  known 
in  some  parts 
of  the  country 
as  "  electric- 
light  bugs." 

The  mem- 
bers of  this 
family  are  pre- 
daceous.  Their 
fore  legs  are  fig.  105.— Giant 
fitted  for  seiz.  -=""-b"s.^-''-- 
ing  prey  and  resemble  somewhat  those  of  the  water- 
scorpions. 

These  insects  can  be  easily  kept  in  aquaria  and 
are  good  subjects  for  study.  The  outlines  already 
given  for  the  study  of  other  pond  insects  will  afford 
suggestions  for  work  on  these.  A  striking  feature 
in  the  life  history  of  many  of  the  giant  water-bugs  is 


Fig.  104. — Giant  water-bug', 
Belostoina. 


POND   LIFE. 


131 


that  the  female  fastens  her  eggs  on 
the  top  of  her  own  back  with  a  thin 
layer  of  w^aterproof  glue,  which  she 
secretes  for  this  purpose.  Fig.  106 
represents  a  species  found  in  the  far 
West. 

The  pinned  specimens  in  your 
collection  should  be  placed  after  the 
water-scorpions  under  a  copy  of  the 
following  label : — 

Family  Belostomid^  (Bel-os-tom'i-dae). 
The  Giant  Water-bugs. 


Fig.  106. — Female, 
with  eggs,  Serphus, 


The  Wrigglers  {Field  Work).— The  wrigglers,  or 
"  wigglers,"  as  they  are  more  commonly  called,  are  so 

well  known  that 
it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  describe 
their  form  that 
they  may  be  rec- 
ognized. They 
abound  through- 
out the  warmer 
part  of  the  year  in 
ponds,  in  ditches 
choked  with  fall- 
en leaves,  and  in 
pools  in  swampy 
places.  But  usu- 
ally they  are  most 

Fig.  107. — A  glass  of  water  containing  eggs,  larvae,    CaSlly  lOUna  lU  CX- 
and  pup^  of  mosquitoes.  ^^^^^  rCCCptaclcS 

of  rain-water,  in  watering-troughs,  and  in  other  sim- 


32 


INSECT    LIFE. 


ilar  places.  There  are  two  forms  of  them  :  one  are 
the  larvse  of  mosquitoes,  the  other  the  pupge  of  the 
same  insects  ;  both  are  represented  in  Fig.  107. 

Collect  some  wrigglers  and  put  them  in  a  glass 
of  water  where  you  can  observe  them.  This  aquarium 
should  be  kept  covered  when  jou  are  not  studying 
the  insects  in  it. 

The  Larv^  of  Mosquitoes  {School  Work).— In 
the  study  of  wrigglers  begin  with 
the  larvae  ;  these  are  of  the  form 
shown  at  a  in  Fig.  108. 

1.  Note  that  when  a  larva  is 
at  rest  it  hangs  from  the  surface 
with  its  head  down  ;  several  are 
shown  in  this  position  in  Fig.  107. 

2.  Note  that  when  a  larva  is 
disturbed  it  swims  away  with  a 

wriggling  motion  or  quietly  sinks  toward  the  bottom. 

3.  Note  that  a  larva  can  sink  without  any  appar- 
ent effort,  while  in  order  to  regain  the  surface  it  is 
forced  to  exert  itself  violently.  Evidently  the  body 
of  the  insect  is  heavier  than  water. 

4.  Let  us  see  if  we  can  discover  the  means  by 
which  the  larva  keeps  itself  at  the  surface  without 
any  effort,  although  the  body  is  heavier  than  water. 

Note  that  the  true  hind  end  of  the  body,  the 
last  abdominal  segment,  is  not  at  the  surface,  but  is 
turned  to  one  side,  and  that  what  really  reaches  the 
surface  is  the  end  of  a  tube  borne  by  the  next-to-the- 
last  segment.  This  is  the  breathing-tube  of  the 
larva.  If  the  pupil  has  the  use  of  a  microscope,  a 
larva  should  be  mounted  on  a  glass  slip  and  the 
structure  of  this  breathing-tube  examined.      It  will 


Fig.  108. — Mosquitoes. 
a,  larva ;  b,  pupa. 


POND   LIFE. 


133 


be  found  to  bear  at  its  hinder-end  a  rosette  of  five 

platelike  lobes  ;  this  is  shown  at  a  in  Fig-.  109.     This 

rosette  can  be  seen  imperfectly  with 

a  good  lens.     When  a  larva  reaches 

the  surface  it  spreads  out  the  rosette 

upon  the  surface  film,  w^hich  buoys  it 

up  in  the  same  way  that  we  have  seen 

a  needle  supported  by  this  film  (see 

experiment  i,  pag-e  104).     The  body  fig.  109.— «,  end  of 

f      1         ,  -1  ^'^     ^        i  •  breathing- tube  of 

01  the  larva  is  only  slightly  heavier  larva;  ^  breath- 
than  the  water,  and  the  buoyant  effect  -g-t"be  of  pupa. 
of  the  surface  film  on  the  rosette  is  sufficient  to  over- 
come this  difference. 

5.  Consider  the  adaptations  in  structure  to  the 
mode  of  life  of  this  insect :  The  form  of  the  respira- 
tory tube  enables  it  to  rest  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 
where  it  can  get  a  supply  of  air,  w^hile  the  greater 
weight  of  the  fore  end  of  the  body  causes  it  to  hang 
down  into  the  water  in  a  position  suited  to  collect- 
ing the  minute  particles  of  decaying  vegetation  scat- 
tered through  the  water  and  upon  which  the  insect 
feeds.  This  position  is  also  one  that  enables  the  in- 
sect to  start  quickly  on  its  wriggling  journey  when 
alarmed. 

6.  If  the  student  has  the  use  of  a  microscope,  it 
will  be  well  for  him  to  make  at  this  point  a  larger 
r.nd  more  detailed  figure  of  a  larva  than  that  given 
above,  which  was  introduced  merely  to  show  the 
general  form  of  these  insects  in  this  stage. 

The  Pup^  of  Mosquitoes  {School  Work).— The 
larvas  of  mosquitoes  develop  rapidly,  and  after  a  few 
molts  change  into  club-shaped  pupas,  the  head  and 
thorax  being  greatly  enlarged  in  this  stage.      The 


J  34  INSECT   LIFE. 

general  form  of  the  pupse  is  shown  at  b  in  Fig.  io8. 
Usually  larvas  and  pupae  are  found  at  the  same 
time,  but  if  you  have  only  larvse  you  can  obtain 
pupse  by  keeping  the  larvae  in  water  till  they  trans- 
form. 

1.  Note  and  describe  the  differences  between  the 
larvae  and  the  pupse  in  the  following  respects  :  The 
form  of  the  body.  The  position  of  the  insect  when 
at  rest.  The  number  and  position  of  the  breathing- 
tubes.  (The  structure  of  a  breathing-tube  of  a  pupa, 
as  seen  through  a  microscope,  is  shown  at  b  in  Fig. 
109.) 

2.  Note  that  the  pupae  of  mosquitoes  are  active, 
swimming  with  a  wriggling  motion  similar  to  that 
of  the  larvae.  It  is  a  very  unusual  thing  for  insects 
that  have  a  complete  metamorphosis  (see  page  35)  to 
be  active  in  the  pupa  state. 

3.  Observe  the  wing-pads  on  the  sides  of  the 
thorax,  also  the  leaflike  appendages  at  the  tail  end  of 
the  body,  with  which  the  insect  swims. 

4.  If  you  have  an  opportunity  to  do  so,  study  the 
pupa  with  a  microscope  and  make  a  large,  detailed 
drawing  of  it. 

5.  How  does  the  pupa  make  use  of  the  surface 
film  of  water? 

The  Emergence  of  Mosquitoes. — The  pupa 
state  of  mosquitoes  lasts  only  a  few  days,  then  the 
skin  splits  down  the  back,  and  the  winged  mosquito 
carefully  works  itself  out  and  cautiously  balances 
itself  on  the  cast  skin,  using  it  as  a  raft,  until  its 
wings  are  hardened  so  that  it  can  fly  away. 

Collect  many  wrigglers,  and,  keeping  them  in 
water,  try  to  observe  the  emergence  of  the  adult. 


POND   LIFE. 


135 


Adult  MosQUixoES.—The  form  of  mosquitoes  is 
very  well  known,  but  there  are  certain  mosquitolike 
insects  that  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  members  of 
this  family.  Mosquitoes  differ  from  these,  however, 
in  having  a  fringe  of  scalelike  hairs  on  the  margin  of 
the  wing  and  also  on  each  of  the  wing-veins.     Fig. 


'-•tlVlii'll'iltipi 

Fig   1 10. — Wing  of  mosquito. 

1 10  represents  the  wing  of  a  mosquito  as  seen  through 
a  microscope. 

The  sexes  of  mosquitoes  can  be  distinguished  by 
the  form  of  the  antennae  ;  at  m  in  Fig.  in  is  repre- 
sented the  antenna  of  a  male,  and/ 
the  antenna  of  a  female. 

It  is  only  the  females  that  sing 
and  bite ;  the  males  are  mute  and 
live  on  the  juices  of  plants. 

The  eggs  are  laid  side  by  side  in 
a  boat-shaped  mass  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.  One  of  these  is  repre- 
sented floating  in  Fig.  107.  By  col- 
lecting a  mass  of  this  kind  and  putting  it  in  a  vessel 
of  water,  the  complete  life  history  of  these  insects 
can  be  observed. 

Mosquitoes  belong  to  the  order  of  two-winged 
insects  or  flies.  Collect  some  adults  and,  if  you  have 
very  slender  pins,  pin  them  ;  if  not,  mount  them  on 


Fig.   Ill 


of  mosquitoes,    m, 
male ;  /,  female. 


136 


INSECT    LIFE. 


cardboard  points.      Copy  the    following  labels,  and 
arrange  your  specimens  under  them  : — 

Order  Diptera   (Dip'te-ra). 

The  Flies. 

Family  Culicid^  (Cu-lic'i-dae). 

The  Mosquitoes. 

Write  up  the  life  history  of  a  mosquito,  and  place 
specimens  of  the  eggs,  larvae,  and  pupse  in  alcohol  in 
your  collection  with  the  adults. 

INSECTS    THAT    REST    AT    THE    BOTTOM. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  rather  difficult  to  watch  in  the 
field  the  habits  of  insects  that  live  at  the  bottom  of 
ponds;  but  in  most  cases  these  insects  can  be  kept 
in  aquaria,  and  there  studied  without  difficulty. 
By  searching  ponds  or  the  quiet  portions  of  streams, 
some  of  these  insects  may  be  seen  crawling  over 
the  bottom,  and  can  then  be  taken  with  the  hand. 
But  a  more  rapid  way  of  collecting  them  is  by 
sweeping  the  bottom  of  the  pond  and  submerged 
plants  with  an  insect  net.  If  the  work  outlined  in 
the  preceding  pages  has  been  carried  out,  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  some  of  these  insects  are  al- 
ready in  your  aquaria.  If  not,  seek  for  them  in  the 
field. 

The  Habits  of  Water-boatmen  {School  Work). — 
These  are  oval,  gray  and  black,  mottled  bugs,  usually 
less  than  half  an  inch  in  length  ;  they  occur  in  the 
streams,  ponds,  and  lakes  of  the  whole  United  States. 
The  characteristic  form  and  markings  of  these  in- 
sects are  shown  in  Fig.  112.  Very  little  difficulty 
will  be  had  in  finding  these  insects  in  almost  any  lo- 


POND   LIFE.  13^ 

cality  where  there  are  ponds  of  water,  and  thej  are 
very  easily  kept  in  aquaria. 

1.  Remove  a  few  specimens  from  the  aquarium, 
and  place  them  in  a  glass  of  water  in  the  bottom  of 
which  there  is  a  layer   of  gravel 

or  small  pebbles.  If  several 
specimens  are  placed  in  the 
glass,  some  of  them  may  come  to 
rest  near  enough  the  side  of  the 
glass  so  that  they  may  be  studied 
with  a  lens. 

2.  Note  that  the  favorite   at-  ^_ 

Fig.  T12. 

titude    of    a     water-boatman    is 

clinging  to  a  pebble  at  the  bottom  of  the  aquarium 
by  the  tips  of  the  middle  legs,  with  the  fore  legs 
bent  up  under  the  head  and  the  hind  legs  stretched 
out  sidewise  like  oars.  This  is  a  very  different  at- 
titude from  that  assumed  by  their  near  relatives, 
the  back-swimmers. 

3.  Note  that  there  is  a  thick  layer  of  air  covering 
the  entire  belly  or  ventral  side  of  the  body.  Some- 
times this  layer  of  air  extends  down  the  legs  nearly 
or  quite  to  the  ends  of  the  coxse,  and  often  there  is  a 
strip  of  air  on  the  outside  of  the  outer  edge  of  each 
upper  wing.  The  spaces  between  the  head  and  pro- 
thorax,  the  prothorax  and  mesothorax,  and  between 
the  wings  and  abdomen  are  also  filled  with  air.  These 
masses  of  air  can  be  seen  when  the  insect  bends  its 
body. 

4.  By  watching  these  insects  carefully,  you  will 
be  able  to  see  that  sometimes  one  will  lift  its  wings 
slightly,  thus  drawing  the  air  from  the  ventral  side 
of  the  body  up  under  the  wings ;  and,  on  the  other 


138 


INSECT    LIFE. 


hand,  they  frequently  rub  their  hind  legs  down  their 
backs,  thus  forcing  the  air  from  under  the  wings  to 
the  ventral  surface  of  the  body. 

5.  Note  that  while  a  water-boatman  is  resting 
near  the  bottom  of  the  aquarium,  it  frequently  moves 
its  oarlike  hind  legs  backward  with  a  quick  sweeping 
motion,  causing  a  current  of  water  to  flow  over  the 
layer  of  air  on  the  ventral  side  of  the  body. 

Although  the  water-boatmen  breathe  air,  w^hich 
they  carry  with  them  in  a  way  very  similar  to  that 
of  the  back-swimmers,  they  are  able  to  remain  under 
water  without  going  to  the  surface  to  renew  the  sup- 
ply of  air  for  a  very  long  period.  This,  I  think,  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  the  air  on  the  lower  side 
of  the  body  and  along  the  outer  edge  of  the  wing- 
covers  is  in  direct  contact  with  the  water,  so  that  it 
can  be  purified  by  the  air  that  is  mixed  with  the 
water.  And  probably  it  is  to  insure  this  purification 
of  the  layer  of  air  that  the  insect  causes  a  current  of 
water  to  flow  over  it  by  the  sweeping  motion  of  its 
hind  legs.  This  also  explains  the  reason  for  forcing 
the  air  out  from  under  the  wings  and  drawing  it 
back  again. 

Sometimes,  however,  the  insects  dart  to  the  sur- 
face and  return  to  the  bottom  as  if  going  after  a  fresh 
supply  of  air ;  but  the  movement  is  so  rapid  and  the 
stay  at  the  surface  is  so  short  that  I  have  been  unable 
to  determine  the  manner  of  taking  the  air. 

6.  Observe  the  mode  of  life  of  these  insects  as 
completely  as  possible,  and  write  an  account  of  them. 

The  Structure  of  Water-boatmen  {School 
Work). — Kill  and  pin  some  specimens,  and  study 
their  structure. 


POND   LIFE.  139 

1.  Note  that  the  head  overlaps  the  prothorax  in- 
stead of  being  inserted  in  it,  as  is  usually  the  case 
with  insects. 

2.  Observe  the  very  large,  three-cornered  eyes. 
The  antennas  are  very  small,  and  are  concealed  under 
the  backward-projecting  edge  of  the  side  of  the  head. 

3.  Observe  the  lower  part  of  the  front  of  the 
head  ;  it  tapers  to  a  blunt  point,  but  it  is  not  pro- 
longed into  a  slender  beak,  as  is  usual  with  bugs ; 
near  the  tip  of  the  head  there  is  a  small  opening, 
through  which  the  sucking  mouth-parts  are  pushed 
when  in  use. 

4.  The  prothorax  is  conspicuous  above,  and  is 
marked  by  transverse  stripes ;  on  the  sides  it  is  very 
short,  and  below  it  is  almost  completely  covered  by 
the  head ;  this  brings  the  fore  legs  very  near  to  the 
mouth. 

5.  Make  a  drawing  of  one  of  the  fore  legs  ;  note 
that  the  tarsus  consists  of  a  single  segment,  is  scoop- 
like in  form,  and  bears  a  comblike  fringe  of  bristles. 

6.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  middle  leg,  and  note  the 
very  long,  slender  tarsal  claws.  What  is  the  use  of 
these  claws? 

7.  Make  a  drawing  of  a  hind  leg.  What  are  these 
legs  fitted  for  ? 

8.  Study  the  lower  side  of  the  abdomen  of  sev- 
eral specimens.  In  the  females  the  segments  are  of 
the  usual  form,  but  in  the  males  some  of  them,  and 
especially  the  last  four,  are  very  unsymmetrical, 
being,  upon  one  side,  broken  into  irregular-shaped 
frao;-ments.     The  cause  of  this  is  not  known. 

9.  Indicate  by  labels  the  sexes  of  your  pinned 
specimens. 


I40 


INSECT   LIFE. 


lo.  Place  the  pinned  specimens  in  your  collection 
with  the  Hemiptera  under  a  copy  of  the  following 

label  :— 

Family  Corisid^  (Co-ris'i-dae). 

The  Wate7'-boatmen. 


The  Nymphs  of  Damsel-flies  {Field  Work). — 
The  nymphs  of  damsel-flies  are  truly  aquatic,  having 
gill-like  organs  which  enable  them  to  live  in  water 
without  coming  to  the  surface  from 
time  to  time  for  a  supply  of  air. 
They  may  be  found  in  those  ponds 
or  streams  about  which  the  adults 
fly,  and  are  most  abundant  among 
the  stems  of  submerged  plants.  Fig. 
113  will  enable  you  to  recognize 
these  insects  when  found. 

CoUectspecimens  of  these  nymphs 
and  place  them  in  aquaria  for  study. 
The  Habits  and  Structure 
OF  THE  Nymphs  of  Damsel-flies 
{School  Work). — The  nymphs  of  dam- 
sel-flies are  easily  reared  in  aquaria 
in  which  the  water  is  kept  pure  by 
growing  plants.  Frequently  tiny 
ones  will  appear  in  such  aquaria  from  eggs  that  were 
in  the  stems  of  the  plants  when  they  were  collected. 
In  such  cases  it  is  easy  to  watch  the  entire  life 
history  of  the  insect  after  it  leaves  the  Qgg. 

We  will  not  outline  such  a  study,  for  the  pupil 
who  has  made  the  observations  on  pond  life  already 
indicated  will  be  able  to  direct  his  own  studies  ;  and 
independent   original  observations   are   much   more 


Fig.  ii^. — N^'inph  of 
damssl-fly. 


POND   LIFE. 


141 


enjoyable  than  prescribed  work.  We  will,  however, 
explain  two  striking  peculiarities  in  the  structure  of 
these  insects : 

1.  Remove  the  nymph  from  the  water  and  exam- 
ine its  mouth-parts.  The  lower  side  of  the  head  will 
be  seen  to  be  covered  by  a  broad  flap  ;  this  is  the 
greatly  developed  lower  lip  or  labium,  and  is  termed 
in  these  insects  the  mask.  With  a  pin  lift  the  end  of 
the  mask  away  from  the  head,  and  observe  that  it  is 
very  long  and  is  hinged  in  such  a  w^ay  that  it  can  be 
pushed  out  a  considerable  distance  in  front  of  the 
head.  Note  also  that  it  is  furnished  with  hooks  at 
the  end.  This  is  the  organ  by  which  the  nymph 
seizes  its  prey.  Try  to  observe  the  nymphs  in  your 
aquarium  catch  other  insects. 

A  similar  organ  is  possessed  by  the  nymphs  of 
dragon-flies,  and  is  represented  in  Fig.  115. 

2.  Observe  the  leaflike  organs  at  the  hind  end 
of  the  body.  These  are  the  tracheal  gills, 
the  organs  by  means  of  which  the  insect 
breathes  during  its  life  in  the  water.  Fig. 
114  represents  a  tracheal  gill  of  a  damsel-fly 
greatly  enlarged.  These  organs  are  called 
tracheal  gills  because  the  tracheae  or  air- 
vessels  extend  into  them,  and  the  air  con- 
tained in  the  tracheae  is  purified  by  the  water 
(or  rather  by  the  air  in  the  water)  that  bathes 
the  gills.  While  with  true  gills,  as  those  of  ^^^-  "4- 
fishes  and  lobsters,  etc.,  the  gill  contains  vessels  car- 
rying blood  to  be  purified. 

3.  Preserve  specimens  of  nymphs  of  damsel-flies 
in  alcohol  and  put  them  in  your  collection  with  the 
adults. 


1^2  INSECT    LIFE. 

4.  Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned 
about  these  insects. 

The  Habits  and  Structure  of  the  Nymphs 
OF  Dragon-flies  {Field  and  School  Work). — The 
nymphs  of  dragon-fiies  are  found  in  the  same  situa- 
tions as  those  of  damsel-flies  ;  they  are  also  found 
crawling  over  the  bottoms  of  ponds  and  streams 
where  there  are  no  plants  growing.  They  vary 
greatly  in  form,  some  being  slender  while  others  are 
very  broad.  They  resemble  the  nymphs  of  damsel- 
flies  in  having  a  mask  and  in  their  use  of  this  organ ; 
but  they  differ  in  lacking  the  external  tracheal  gills. 
Fig.  115  represents  one  of  these  nymphs. 

Collect  specimens  of  these  nymphs  and  place 
them  in  aquaria  for  study.     Also  preserve  some  in 

alcohol  in  your  collec- 
tion with  the  adult 
dragon -flies.  When 
P^^  ^^  collectingthese, search 

for  cast  skins  along 
the  shores  of  the  pond  or  stream.  Preserve  speci- 
mens of  the  cast  skins  in  your  collection. 

We  will  call  attention  to  only  one  feature  in  the 
structure  and  habits  of  these  creatures,  leaving  the 
pupil  to  discover  other  things  for  himself : 

The  nymphs  of  dragon-flies  possess  tracheal  gills 
of  very  unusual  form.  These  are  situated  within  the 
body,  and  consist  of  a  large  number  of  tracheae  rami- 
fying in  the  walls  of  the  hind  part  of  the  intestine 
— the  rectum.  The  nymph  drawls  water  into  this 
part  of  the  intestine  through  the  opening  at  the 
hind  end  of  the  body ;  and  this  water,  bathing  the 
walls  of  the  rectum,  purifies  the  air  in  the  tracheas 


POND   LIFE.  143 

in  the  same  way  that  the  air  in  the  trachese  of  an 
ordinary  tracheal  gill  is  purified.  By  watching  a 
living  specimen  it  can  be  seen  to  alternately  draw  in 
the  water  and  force  it  out  again. 

This  arrangement  serves  as  an  organ  of  locomo- 
tion as  well  as  an  organ  of  respiration.  For  the 
insect,  by  suddenly  forcing  out  the  water  from  the 
rectum,  can  cause  itself  to  shoot  forward.  The  jet 
of  water  forced  out  from  the  rectum  when  the  insect 
jumps  forward  is  most  easily  seen  when  the  insect  is 
on  the  bottom  of  the  aquarium  ;  in  such  a  case  the 
fine  dirt  will  be  disturbed  by  it  for  a  considerable 
distance  back  of  the  insect. 

If  you  can  find  a  large  number  of  nymphs  of 
dragon-flies,  do  so,  and,  keeping  them  in  aquaria,  try 
to  observe  the  emergence  of  the  adult.  Of  this 
Tennyson  wrote : 

To-day  I  saw  the  dragon-fly 
Come  from  the  wells  where  he  did  lie, 
An  inner  impulse  rent  the  veil 
Of  his  old  husk  ;  from  head  to  tail 
Came  out  clear  plates  of  sapphire  mail. 
He  dried  his  wings :  like  gauze  they  grew, 
Through  crofts  and  pastures  wet  with  dew 
A  living  flash  of  light  he  flew. 


CHAPTER   V. 


BROOK    LIFE. 


N  a  deep  ravine,  where  a  hill  stream 
tumbles  down  a  stairway  of  rocks,  is 
one  of  our  favorite  resorts  on  Satur- 
days. A  dense  forest  growth  covers 
the  sides  of  the  ravine,  and  shuts  out 
all  the  world  besides ;  but  at  midday, 
when  the  sun  shines  brightly,  the  light 
streams  down  through  the  narrow 
opening  above  the  creek.  This  is  the 
time  to  watch  the  ways  of  the  crea- 
tures clinging  to  the  rocks  in  the 
rapids,  or  living  in  the  quiet  pools  below.  Many  a 
holiday  have  we  waded  up  this  stream,  bottles  and 
lens  in  hand,  coaxing  Nature  to  yield  up  some  of  her 
secrets.  ' 

Here  we  have  watched  the  caddice-worms  drag 
their  log  houses  over  the  bottoms  of  the  pools  ;  here 
the  brinks  of  the  falls  bear  great  patches  of  a  living 
carpet  of  wriggling  black-fly  larvse ;  and  here  we 
discovered  how  the  net-winged  midges  leave  the 
water,  unfold  their  wings,  and  take  flight.  It  is  a 
rich  collecting  field  ;  the  cool,  pure  water  of  the 
brook  and  the  rush  of  the  torrents  affording  a  home 

144 


Plate  VI. 


A   BROOK. 


BROOK  LIFE. 


145 


for  many  creatures  that  can  not  live  in  the  warmer 
and  more  quiet  streams  of  the  valley  below. 

In  the  following  pages  are  mentioned  some  of 
the  insects  that  may  be  found  in  similar  streams — 
that  is,  in  streams  flowing  rapidly  over  stones.  Most 
of  these  insects  occur  rarely  or  not  at  all  in  quiet, 
sluggish  streams,  flowing  over  sandy  bottoms,  through 
level  stretches  of  country.  In  such  streams  are  found 
the  insects  described  in  the  chapter  on  Pond  Life. 

In  our  hill  stream,  too,  there  occur  many  of  the 
pond  insects,  for  during  its  course  there  are  quiet 
bays  and  broad,  still  waters,  which  seem  perfectly 
suited  to  their  needs. 

Little  brook,  sing  to  me  : 

Sing  about  a  bumblebee 
That  tumbled  from  a  lily- bell,  and  grumbled  mumblingly 

Because  he  wet  the  film 

Of  his  wings,  and  had  to  swim, 
While  the  water-bugs  raced  round  and  laughed  at  him  ! 

Little  brook,  sing  a  song 

Of  a  leaf  that  sailed  along 
Down  the  golden-braided  center  of  your  current  swift  and  strong, 

And  a  dragon-fly  that  lit 

On  the  tilting  rim  of  it. 
And  rode  away  and  wasn't  scared  a  bit. 

James  Whitcomb  Riley. ^ 

INSECTS    THAT    LIVE    BENEATH    STONES    IN    RAPIDS. 

There  is  no  collecting  field  that  is  more  certain  to 
yield  returns  than  the  bed  of  a  rapidly  flowing 
stream  of  pure  water.     Lift  the  stones  from  such  a 

*  From  Old-fashioned  Roses,  by  permission  of  the  Bowen-Merrill  Co. 


146 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Stream  at  any  season  of  the  year  and  you  will  find 
nymphs  and  larvae  of  various  kinds  clinging  to  their 
lower  surface.  If  before  lifting  the  stones  you  will 
place  a  net  in  the  stream  just  below^  them,  other  in- 
sects that  live  beneath  the  stones  will  be  swept  into 
it  by  the  current. 

A  great  variety  of  insects  live  in  such  places,  the 
kinds  differing  in  different  localities.  But  there  are 
certain  families  that  are  almost  sure  to  be  represented 
in  any  rapidly  flowing  stream  ;  they  are  the  stone- 
flies,  the  May-flies,  and  the  caddice-worms.  These 
and  a  few  others  are  described  below. 

Most  of  these  insects  are  not  easily  kept  in  aquaria 
without  running  water.  But  if  you  can  place  an  aqua- 
rium under  a  faucet,  and  keep  the  water  from  over- 
flowing by  the  use  of  a  constant-level  siphon  (see 
page  331),  you  may  be  able  to  preserve  living  speci- 
mens for  study. 

If  vou  are  unable  to  do  this,  study  the  insects  as 
well  as  you  can  in  the  field,  and  bring  back  speci- 
mens for  your  collection  and  for  a  study  of  their 
structure. 

The  Nymphs  of  Stoxe-flies  [Field  and  School 
Work). — In  most  localities  the  insects  that  occur  in 
greatest  numbers  on  the  lower  side  of  stones  in  the 
beds  of  streams  are  the  nymphs  of  stone-flies,  and  it 
was  probably  this  fact  that  suggested  their  common 
name.  Usually  the  first  stone  lifted  from  a  riff  will 
be  found  to  bear  several  of  these  insects  clinging  to 
it,  or  scurrying  over  its  surface  in  their  efforts  to 
escape.  When  at  rest  the  very  flat  body  is  closely 
applied  to  the  stone,  while  the  legs,  antenuce,  and 
caudal  setce  radiate  from   it  on  the   surface    of  the 


BROOK    LIFE. 


147 


stone.  In  our  common  forms  there  is  a  tuft  of  hair- 
like tracheal  gills  just  behind  the  base  of  each  leg, 
and  the  more  mature  individuals  have  conspicuous 
wing-pads  (Fig.  116).  These  general  characteristics 
will  enable  the  pupil  to  recognize 
these  insects.  Specimens  should 
be  collected  and  taken  to  school 
for  a  more  careful  study  of  their 
structure.  Look  also  for  empty 
nymph  skins  ;  these  will  be  found 
clinging  to  stones  and  other  ob- 
jects on  the  shores  of  the  stream, 
where  they  were  left  when  the 
adults  emerofcd. 

Pin  the  empty  nymph  skins 
and  preserve  the  nymphs  in  al- 
cohol. Put  both  in  your  collec- 
tion with  the  adult  stone-flies  (see 
page  103). 

In  the  study  of  the  structure 
of  these  insects  note  the  follow- 
ing :  The  nymphs  resemble  the  adults  to  a  consid- 
erable degree,  except  that  they  lack  wings.  The 
order  Plecoptera,  or  stone-flies,  is  a  good  example 
of  those  orders,  the  members  of  which  undergo  an 
incomplete  metamorphosis.  The  body  is  greatly 
flattened  ;  in  this  way  the  insect  is  well  fitted  for 
creeping  under  stones.  The  legs  are  flattened  and 
fringed  with  hairs,  fitting  the  insect  for  swimming  as 
well  as  for  creeping.  The  tarsi  are  each  furnished 
with  tzvo  claws.  The  organs  of  special  sense  are  well 
developed,  there  being  large  compound  eyes,  three 
simple  eyes,  and  long  antennge.     The  mouth  is  fur- 


FlG.  116.  — Nymph  of 
stone-fly. 


148  INSECT    LIFE. 

nished  with  strong,  toothed  mandibles  (it  is  some- 
times necessary  to  cut  away  the  upper  lip  in  order 
to  see  them  well),  and  the  caudal  end  of  the  body  is 
furnished  with  two  large  setae.  The  number  and 
position  of  the  tufts  of  tracheal  gills  differ  in  different 
species. 

The  nymphs  of  stone-fiies  are  carnivorous.  ^ 
The  Nymphs  of  May-flies  {Field  and  School 
Work). — These  are  also  found  beneath  stones  in  the 
beds  of  rapidly  flowing  streams,  but  they  also  oc- 
cur in  many  other  situations.  Some  live  in  the 
banks  of  streams,  where  they  excavate  burrows  for 
shelter;  others  live  in  slowly  moving  waters  and 
conceal  themselves  by  covering  the  body  with  mud  ; 
and  still  others  swim  among  water  plants.  But  in 
regions  where  there  are  rapidly  flowing  streams, 
those  that  live  under  stones  will  be  most  easily 
found. 

As  a  rule,  the  body  is  not  flattened  to  so  great  an 
extent  as  with  the  nymphs  of  stone-flies  ;  the  tracheal 
gills  are  usually  more  or  less  platelike  in  form,  al- 
though sometimes  they  are  threadlike  and 
tufted ;  and  the  tarsi  end  in  a  single  claw. 
Fig.  117  represents  one  of  our  most  com- 
mon species. 

Study  the  structure  of  a  nymph,  and 
compare  it  with  that  of  the  nymph  of  a 
stone-fly. 

Fig.   117.—         Preserve  specimens  in  alcohol,  and  put 
^Ai^y^fl?^   them  in  your  collection  with  the  adult  May- 
flies (see  page  loi). 
The   Caddice-WORMS  {Field  and  School  Work).— 
When  the  writer  was  a  lad,  before  he  had  heard  of 


BROOK   LIFE. 


149 


Nature  study — before  the  study  of  insects  except  as 
a  part  of  zoology  was  taught  in  any  school  in  this 
country — he  began  his  study  of  caddice-worms.  It 
was  not  a  thorough  study — in  fact,  he  w^ould  have 
been  surprised  to  have  heard  it  called  study  at  all. 
To  him  it  w^as  fun,  after  a  long  tussle  with  a  hard 
Latin  lesson,  to  run  over  the  long  bridge  across  the 
river  and  on  to  the  swamp  near  the  lake  where  the 
Azaleas  blossomed,  and  to  lie  face  down  on  the  bank 
of  a  stream  and  watch  the  curious  worms  that  had 
tiny  log  houses  about  their  bodies. 

It  was  his  first  introduction  to  a  field  of  study 
that  has  since  happily  occupied  the  greater  part  of 
his  time  for  several  decades.  Probably  for  this  rea- 
son he  always  expe- 
riences a  thrill  of 
pleasure  when  he  is 
permitted    to   intro-  fig.  118. 

duce  these  little  architects  to  other  Nature-loving 
youngsters. 

This  was  a  sluggish  stream,  and  the  caddice- 
worms  found  there  built  cases  of  fragments  of  partly 
decayed  wood,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  118.  Later, 
in  another  quiet  stream  where  grass  was  growing  in 
the  water,  there  were  found  other  cad- 
dice-worms, which  built  cases  having:  a 
still  greater  resemblance  to  log  houses. 
These  cases  were  composed  of  tiny  lengths 
of  grass  laid  crosswise  (Fig.  119).  They 
iG.  119.  ^j.g  rough-appearing  structures,  but  within 
they  are  smooth  and  lined  with  silk — an  excellent 
protection  to  the  soft-bodied  larvae  that  occupy  them. 
Caddice-worms,   like    either   of    these   described 


I50 


INSECT    LIFE. 


above,  can  be  kept  in  aquaria,  and  are  excellent  sub- 
jects for  study. 

In  swiftly  flowing  streams,  and  especially  in  those 
in  which  the  water  is  cool,  there  may  be  found  many 
other  kinds.  Several  of  these  build  cases  of  small 
stones  or  grains  of  sand.  Some  of  the  cases  are  very 
regular  in  form ;  others  consist  of  a  central  tube  with 
large  stones  fastened   on  two  sides  of  it  (Fig.  120); 


Fig.  120.  Fig.  121.  Fig.  122. 

and  one  kind,  built  of  fine  sand,  is  coiled  so  as  to 
resemble  the  shell  of  a  snail  (Fig.  121). 

In  all  of  these  the  material  of  which  the  case  is 
made  is  fastened  together  by  silk,  which  the  larvas 
spin  from  the  mouth  in  the  same  manner  as  caterpil- 
lars. In  some  species  the  case  is  composed  entirely 
of  silk.  Fig.  122  represents  the  form  of  such  a  case 
made  by  a  larva  that  lives  among  eel-grass  in  a  lake. 

Before  transforming  to  pupas,  the  caddice-worms 
partly  close  their  cases  so  as  to  keep  out  intruders, 
but  openings  are  left  for  the  inflow  of  water  for 
breathinsf. 

The  adults  are  known  as  caddice-flies ;  they  are 
mothlike  insects,  which  are  often  attracted  to  lights 
at  night.     Fig.  68,  page  79,  represents  one  of  them. 

Collect  as  many  kinds  of  caddice-worms  as  possi- 
ble. Keep  alive  some  of  those  that  will  live  in 
aquaria,  and  study  their  habits. 

Remove  some  from  their  cases,  and  study  their 


BROOK   LIFE. 


151 


structure.  Note  especially  the  following  :  The  great 
length  of  the  legs,  which  enables  the  larva  to  pull 
itself  along  without  exposing  much  of  its  body  ;  the 
firmer  covering  of  the  fore  part  of  the  body  which 
is  exposed  while  the  insect  is  walking ;  the  softer 
texture  and  paler  color  of  the  protected  parts  of  the 
body ;  the  number,  form,  and  position  of  the  tracheal 
gills ;  and  the  hooks  at  the  hind  end  of  the  body  by 
which  the  larva  holds  itself  within  its  case. 

Preserve  larvae  with  their  cases  in  alcohol,  and 
mount  empty  cases  on  cards.  Try  to  rear  pup2e  and 
adults  from  larvas  kept  in  aquaria. 

Place  specimens  of  larvas,  cases,  pupse,  and  adults 

in  your  collection   under  a   copy  of   the   following 

label  :— 

Order  Trichoptera  (Tri-chop'te-ra). 

The  Caddice-flies  or  Caddice-worins. 

Write  an  account  of  your  observations  on  these 
insects,  and  illustrate  it  with  sketches  of  their  cases. 

The  Net-building  Caddice-worms  {Field  a^id 
School  Work), — In  lifting  stones  from  a  stream  where 
the  current  flows  swiftly,  the  collector  often  finds 
attached  to  the  lower  side  of  the  stones  little  masses 
of  pebbles  which  are  fastened  to  each  other  and  to 
the  larger  stone  by  threads  of  silk.  These  are  the 
homes  of  the  net-building  caddice-worms. 

Pull  these  rude  habitations  apart  and  the  owners 
will  be  found  in  more  or  less  perfect  tubes  of  silk. 
Very  little  respect  for  the  architectural  skill  of  these 
builders  is  commanded  by  their  dwellings.  But  if 
one  looks  a  little  farther  something  will  be  found 
that  is  sure  to  excite  admiration.     The  dweller  with- 


152 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Fig. 


[23. — Net  of  a  net-building 
caddice-worm. 


in  this  rude  retreat  is  a  fisherman,  and  stretched  be- 
tween two  stones  near-by  can  be  seen  his  net. 

This  is  made  of  silk.  It  is  usually  funnel-shaped, 
opening  up-stream,  and  in  the  center  of  it  there  is  a 
portion  composed  of  threads  of  silk  extending  in  two 
directions  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form 

meshes  of  surprising  regu- 
larity. It  is  as  if  a  spider 
had  stretched  a  small  web 
in  the  water  where  the  cur- 
rent is  swiftest  (Fig.  123). 

These  nets  occur  in  rap- 
ids between  stones,  but  in 
many  places  they  are  to  be 
found  in  greater  numbers 
along  the  brinks  of  falls. 
Here  they  are  built  upon  the  surface  of  the  rock, 
in  the  form  of  semi-elliptical  cups,  which  are  kept 
distended  by  the  current.  Much  of  the  coating  of 
dirt  with  which  these  rocks  are  clothed  in  summer 
is  due  to  its  being  caught  in  these  nets. 

It  is  usually  difficult  to  procure  specimens  of  these 
nets  for  preservation  ;  sometimes,  however,  one  can 
be  found  attached  to  the  surface  of  a  single  small 
stone  or  to  a  piece  of  wood  in  such  a  way  that  it  can 
be  removed  from  the  water  without  injury  to  it. 

Find  some  net-building  caddice-worms  and  learn 
all  you  can  regarding  their  ways ;  collect  specimens 
for  your  collection  and  for  study ;  compare  their 
structure  with  that  of  other  caddice-worms  ;  pre- 
serve specimens  of  larvas  in  alcohol ;  and  dry,  if  pos- 
sible, some  of  their  nests  and  nets. 
Write  an  account  of  these  insects. 


BROOK   LIFE.. 


153 


Fig.  124. — A  wa- 
ter-penny. 


The  Water-pennies  {Field  J^^^r^).— These  are 
strange  larvae,  which  are  rarely  recognized  as  insects 
by  the  young  collector.  They  are  very  flat,  circular 
in  outline,  and  about  five  sixteenths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are  found 
clinging  to  the  lower  surface  of  stones 
in  rapid  streams.  Fig.  124  represents 
one  greatly  enlarged.  They  are  larvag 
of  beetles  of  the  genus  Psephenus  {Pse- 
pJie'niis),  and  are 
merely  mentioned 
here  so  that  the  stu- 
dent of  brook  life  may  know  what 
they  are. 

The  Dobson  or  Horned  Co- 
RYDALIS  {Field  Work). — If  a  net  or 
a  wire  screen  be  held  with  one 
edge  close  to  the  bottom  below 
some  stones  lifted  with  a  hoe  or 
garden  rake,  many  of  the  insects 
living  under  the  stones  will  be 
swept  into  the  net  or  upon  the 
screen,  and  can  thus  be  captured. 
One  of  the  insects  that  is  often 
caught  in  this  way  is  the  dobson, 
the  ugly  creature  represented  by 
Fig.  125. 

This  larva  is  well  known  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
as  it  is  used  extensively  by  anglers 
for  bait,  especially  for  bass,  and  in  spite  of  its  dis- 
agreeable appearance  it  is  in  some  respects  very  in- 
teresting to  students  of  Nature  study. 


Fig.  125. — The  dobson. 


154 


INSECT    LIFE. 


It  will  not  thrive  in  an  ordinary  aquarium,  but  it 
can  be  kept  alive  in  one  through  which  there  is  a 
current  of  well-aerated  water  flowing.  If  such  an 
aquarium  is  lacking,  specimens  can  be  kept  alive  on 
damp  sand  or  in  a  box  with  freshly  cut  grass,  for 
this  is  a  truly  amphibious  species. 

As  this  insect  lives  nearly  three  years  in  the 
larval  state,  larvse  can  be  found  at  any  season  of  the 

year.  In  the  latter  part  of 
May  or  early  in  June  the 
full-grown  larvse  leave  the 
water,  and  each  makes  a 
cell  under  a  stone  or  some 
other  object  on  or  near 
the  bank  of  the  stream. 
Here  they  soon  change  to 
pupge.  These  are  white 
and  have  prominent  wing- 
pads.  In  about  a  month 
after  the  larva  leaves  the 
water  the  adult  insect  ap- 
pears. Fig.  1 26  represents 
the  male,  which  has  re- 
markably long  mandibles. 
The  female  resembles  the 
male,  except  that  the  man- 
dibles are  comparatively 
short.  Soon  after  the 
adults  appear  the  eggs  are 
laid.  These  are  attached  to 
stones  or  other  objects  overhanging  the  water;  they 
are  laid  in  blotchlike  masses  which  are  chalky-white 
in  color,  and  measure  from  half  an  inch  to  nearly  an 


Fig.  126. — The  adult  dobson  or 
horned  Corydalis,  male. 


BROOK   LIFE. 


155 


inch  in  diameter.  A  single  mass  contains  from  two 
thousand  to  three  thousand  eggs.  When  the  larvse 
hatch  they  at  once  find  their  way  into  the  water, 
where  they  remain  until  full  grown. 

The  best  time  to  study  this  insect  is  late  in  the 
spring  and  early  in  the  summer,  for  at  this  season  all 
stages  of  it  can  be  found.  Try  to  get  larvae,  pupse, 
adults,  and  eggs,  and  preserve  them  in  your  collec- 
tion under  a  copy  of  the  following  label : — 
Order  Neuroptera  (Neu-rop'te-ra). 
Family  Sialid^  (Si-al'i-dae), 

The  adult  dobson  is  known  as  the  horned  Cory- 
dalis,  its  scientific  name  being  Corydalis  cornuta. 

The  Structure  of  the  Dobson  {School  Work).— 
Put  a  larva  in  a  cyanide  bottle  one  or  two  hours  be- 
fore it  is  needed  for  study,  as  it  requires  considerable 
time  to  kill  these  insects. 

1.  Lay  the  specimen  on  its  back  and  make  a  draw- 
ing of  the  ventral  surface. 

2.  Name  the  parts  and  appendages  of  the  body 
shown  in  this  view.  The  long,  tapering  appendages 
on  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  may  be  termed  the 
lateral  filaments ;  the  tufts  of  hairlike  appendages 
near  the  bases  of  the  lateral  filaments  are  tracheal 
gills,  and  at  the  hind  end  of  the  body  there  is  a  pair 
oi  prole gs.  Each  proleg  is  furnished  with  a  pair  of 
claws. 

Note  that  in  addition  to  the  tracheal  gills  this 
larva  has  well-developed  spiracles.  Make  a  drawing 
of  a  spiracle  as  seen  through  a  lens.  Note  especially 
the  lid  by  which  the  opening  of  the  spiracle  is  closed. 
State  the  number  of  spiracles  and  the  position  of 


156  INSECT    LIFE. 

each  pair.  Consider  how  well  fitted  this  insect  is 
both  for  life  in  the  water  and  on  the  land. 

A  more  detailed  account  of  the  structure  of  this 
larva  is  given  in  The  Elements  of  Insect  Anatom}^ 
by  Comstock  and  Kellogg. 

The  Near  Relatives  of  the  Dobson  or  Cory- 
DALIS  {Field  Work). — In  searching  for  the  dobson  the 
pupil  is  apt  to  find  certain  other  members  of  the 
same  family  which  live  in  similar  situations.  Some 
of  these  resemble  Corydalis  very  closely,  except  that 
they  are  smaller  when  full  grown  and  do  not  have 
tufts  of  tracheal  gills  ;  these  belong  to  the  genus 
Chauliodes  {Chau-li' o-des).  A  still  smaller  larva  which 
is  similar  in  form  and  also  lacks  tracheal  gills  is  Sialis 
{Si' a  lis) ;  this  differs  from  both  of  the  preceding  in 
having  at  the  hind  end  of  the  body  a  long,  tapering 
appendage  instead  of  a  pair  of  prolegs.  Place  any 
specimens  that  you  may  get  of  either  of  these  in  your 
collection  under  the  family  Sialidce  (see  page  155). 

INSECTS    THAT    LIVE    EXPOSED    IN    TORRENTS. 

There  are  many  insects  that  find  in  rapids  places 
best  fitted  for  their  existence,  but  most  of  these  are 
more  or  less  protected  from  the  rush  of  the  water  by 
the  fact  that  they  live  beneath  stones.  Some  insects, 
however,  scorn  any  protection,  but  live  exposed 
where  the  water  flows  the  swiftest ;  two  of  these  are 
mentioned  below. 

The  Black-flies  {Field  Work), — The  larvse  of  the 
black-flies  should  be  sought  in  streams  flowing  down 
steep  descents.  If  present,  they  are  easily  found,  for 
they  occur  clustered  together  in  large  numbers,  form- 
ing a  black  coating  over  the  rocks.     They  prefer  the 


BROOK   LIFE. 


157 


Fig.  127.— Cocoon  and 
larva  of  a  black-fly. 


brinks  of  falls  and  places  where  the  slanting  bed-rock 
is  washed  clean  by  a  swift  flow  of  water,  but  some- 
times they  cling  to  pieces  of  wood  or  small  stones 
that  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  rapids. 

When  the  larvas  are  fully  grown  they  spin  boot- 
shaped  cocoons  within  which  the  pupa  state  is  passed  ; 
these   are  firmly   fastened  to   the 
rock  upon  which  the  larvae  lived. 
In  Fig.  127  there  are  represented 
a  larva  and  a  cocoon. 

1.  Find  a  cluster  of  larvse  and 
take  notes  on  the  following:  The 
way  in  which  they  keep  their  place 
in  the  swift  current.  (It  is  the  tail 
end  by  which  they  are  usually 
fastened  to  rock.)  Their  method 
of  locomotion,  and  the  action  of  the  fan-shaped  or- 
gans attached  to  the  head. 

2.  Collect  larvas  and  cocoons  and  try  to  keep  them 
alive  in  water.  These  insects  can  not  be  reared  in 
aquaria  unless  they  are  placed  under  a  jet  of  water, 
but  they  can  be  kept  alive  several  hours,  thus  giving 
some  opportunity  for  watching  their  habits  in  con- 
finement. 

3.  Look  for  the  eggs  of  the  black-flies.  These 
are  yellowish  or  brownish  and  occur  in  patches  in 
situations  similar  to  those  inhabited  by  the  larvse. 

4.  Look  also  for  adults.  These  occur  in  swarms, 
hovering  over  the  brinks  of  falls  and  dashing  back 
and  forth  through  the  spray.  Sometimes  they  may 
be  seen  darting  into  the  water  and  out  again  ;  at  such 
times  they  are  laying  their  eggs. 

Fig.  128  represents  one  of  these  flies  somewhat 


158 


INSECT    LIFE. 


enlarged,  and  Fig.  129  represents  an  antenna  much 
more  enlarged.     The  peculiar  venation  of  the  wings 
is  sufficient  to  distinguish  black- 
flies  from  all  others. 

The     Black  -  flies     {School 
Work). — Prepare  for  your  collec- 
tion as  complete  a  series  as  pos- 
FiG.  128.  .,  ,  ,  „  ^ 

sible   01   the   dmerent   stap:es   of 

,  .  .       .  ,       pi-  1  •  Fig.  129. 

these  msects,  pmnmg  the  rlies  and  preserving 
the  eggs,  larvse,  and  cocoons  with  pupse  in  alcohol. 
Place  them  with  other  Diptera  under  a  copy  of  the 
following  label : — 

Family  Simuliid^  (Sim-u-li'i-d^). 
The  Black-flies. 

Watch  living  larvae  in  a  glass  of  water  and  ob- 
serve the  following :  The  disklike  sucker,  fringed 
with  hooks  at  the  caudal  end  of  the  body.  The 
fleshy  proleg  situated  just  back  of  the  head  ;  this  ends 
in  a  sucker  fringed  with  hooks.  The  thread  of  silk 
spun  from  the  mouth.  The  fan-shaped  organs  borne 
by  the  head.  And  the  three  delicate,  much-branched 
tracheal  gills,  which  are  pushed  out  from  between 
the  last  two  abdominal  segments. 

Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned  re- 
garding black-flies,  including  a  description  of  the 
methods  of  locomotion  of  the  larvse  and  the  prob- 
able method  by  w^hich  the  larvas  obtain  their  food. 
It  has  been  found  by  examining  the  stomachs  of 
these  larvas  that  they  feed  on  microscopic  aquatic 
plants  and  bits  of  tissue  of  larger  plants. 

The  Net-winged  Midges  (Field  and  School  Work). 
— These  insects  occur  in  situations  similar  to  those 


BROOK   LIFE. 


159 


Fig.  130.  —  Net-winged  midges  ;  a, 
larva,  dorsal  view  ;  (5,  larva,  ven- 
tral view 


inhabited  by  the  black-flies,  but  as  they  are  compara- 
tively rare  insects  they  are  merely  mentioned  here. 

In  Fig.  130  a  represents 
a  larva  seen  from  above,  b 
a  larva  seen  from  below, 
and  c  a  side  view  of  the 
pupa. 

As  these  are  the  strang- 
est of  all  insect  larvge  they 
should  be  carefully  studied 
if  found.  A  full  account  of 
their   habits   and    transfor- 

_^  „  -  •  ^    „      ■        ^  •  •  trai  view  ;  c,  puparium. 

mations    is    given    in    our  .   -  f  f 

Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.  The}^  belong  to 
the  order  Diptera  and  to  the  family  Blepharocerid^ 
(Bleph-a-ro-cer^i-das). 

INSECTS    OF    BROOKSIDES. 

In  the  study  of  brook  life  the  pupil  will  hardly 
fail  to  observe  many  insects  about  the  shores  of  the 
streams.  The  presence  of  the  greater  part  of  them 
in  such  situations  is  not  due  to  the  proximity  of 
water,  but  is  largely  a  matter  of  chance.  Any  forest, 
orchard,  or  roadside  insect  may  be  found  near  a 
brook  if  its  proper  food  occurs  there.    Some  of  these 

insects  are  described  in  subsequent  chapters. 

Here  mention  is  made  of  a  few  of  those  that 

prefer  the  vicinity  of  water  and  are  rarely 

found  elsewhere. 

The  '^YiO'^Y.-^^5Q^  {Field  and  School  Work). 
— These  abound  in  the  vicinity  of  streams  and  lakes 
and  upon  damp  soils.  They  are  small  bugs,  of  dark 
colors  with  white  or  yellow  markings,  and  with  long 


Fig 


l5o  INSECT   LIFE. 

antennas.  Fig.  131  will  aid  in  recognizing  them.  The 
shore-bugs  take  flight  quickly  when  disturbed,  but 
alight  after  flying  a  short  distance  ;  some  species  dig 
burrows  and  live  for  a  part  of  the  time  beneath  the 
ground.  Collect  specimens  and  put  them  in  your 
collection  under  a  copy  of  the  following  label: — 
Family  Saldid^  (Sal'di-dae). 
The  S hoi' e -bugs. 

The  Toad-shaped  Bugs  {Field  and  School  Work), 
— There  is  sometimes  found  on  the  margins  of  streams 
or  in  marshes  where  the  soil  is  moist  a  cu- 
rious bug,  which,  on  account  of  its  short  and 
broad  body  and  projecting  eyes,  reminds 
one  of  a  toad  (Fig.  132).  If  you  find  speci- 
mens of  these,  observe  the  color  of  the  soil 

Fig.  132.  I'll  r  1  1 

upon  which  they  are  lound  and  compare  it 
with  that  of  the  insects,  for  this  species  exhibits  con- 
siderable variation  in  coloring,  and  its  colors  are  usu- 
ally protective. 

The  toad-shaped  bugs  belong  to  the  order  Hemip- 
tera.     Label  your  specimens  as  follows  : — 
Family  Galgulid^  (Gal-gu'li-dae). 
The  Toad' shaped  Bugs. 

The  Pine-cone  Willow-gall  {Field  and  School 
Work). — The  wanderer  by  the  brookside  often  sees 
a  crop  of  cones  borne  by  willows,  and  if  he  is  care- 
less he  is  apt  to  pass  them  by,  thinking  that  they,  like 
the  cones  of  pines  and  spruces,  contain  the  seeds  of 
the  plant.  But  the  observant  student  knows  that  the 
seeds  of  willows  are  borne  in  catkins,  which  differ 
greatly  in  shape  from  these  conelike  growths. 


BROOK    LIFE. 


l6l 


These  cone-shaped  objects  belong  to  that  class  of 
vegetable  growths  termed  galls.  There  are  very 
many  kinds  of  these ;  and  upon  some  plants,  as  oaks, 
for  example,  they  are  very  abundant. 

Galls  are  produced  by  insects  in  this  way.  The 
female  gall-producing  insect  stings  the  plant  and  lays 
ain  egg  in  the  wound.  It  is  believed  that  in  some 
cases  there  is  deposited  with  the  egg  a  drop  of  poison, 
which  causes  the  growth  of  the  gall.  But  in  other 
cases  the  gall  does  not  begin  to  develop  until  the 
larva  hatches  from  the  egg  and  begins  to  feed  upon 
the  tissue  of  the  plant.  Evidently  if  there  is  a  poison 
in  such  cases  it  must  be  secreted  by  the  larva.  The 
explanation  of  why  galls  grow  is  not  yet  clear ;  but 
we  know  this  much,  that  each  species  of  gall-making 
insect  makes  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  gall. 
Hence  one  versed 
in  this  subject  can 
tell  by  the  form 
and  structure  of  a 
gall  what  species 
of  insect  produced 
it.  The  gall  serves 
as  a  home  and  food 
for  the  larva  de- 
veloped within  it. 

Let  us  return  to 
the  pine-cone  wil- 
low-gall (Fig.  133). 

This         differs         in  Fig.  133.— The  pine-cone  willow-gall. 

shape  and  in  the  manner  of  its  growth  from    most 
galls.     (Other  types  of  galls  will  be  described  in  later 


l52  INSECT    LIFE. 

chapters.)  It  is  produced  by  a  small  gall-gnat,  which 
lays  an  egg  in  the  tip  of  a  branch  of  willow.  A  mag- 
got hatches  from  this  egg  and  lives  in  the  heart  of 
the  bud,  which  ceases  to  grow  in  length  ;  but,  strange- 
ly enough,  leaves  continue  to  be  developed,  and  they, 
crowded  together,  form  the  cone-shaped  gall. 

Collect  specimens  of  the  pine-cone  willow-gall 
and,  splitting  them  open  in  the  middle,  find  the  larv26 
that  produced  them. 

In  early  spring  the  adult  gall-gnats  can  be  reared 
by  keeping  the  galls  in  breeding  cages. 

There  is  a  guest  gall-gnat  that  lays  its  eggs  be., 
tween  the  scales  of  the  pine-cone  willow-gall,  and  the 
larvae  hatched  from  these  develop  in  this  place. 
Seek  for  specimens  of  these  larvse,  and  in  early  spring 
try  to  breed  the  adults.  Both  of  these  gall-gnats 
pass  the  winter  in  the  larval  state  within  the  galls. 
The  larvas  can  be  found  within  the  galls  at  any  time 
during  the  summer,  fall,  or  winter;  but  in  order  to 
breed  the  adults,  it  is  best  to  leave  the  galls  on  the 
plants  till  early  spring. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  insects,  among  them 
certain  long-horned  grasshoppers,  that  deposit  their 
eggs  between  the  leaves  of  the  pine-cone  willow-gall ; 
the  young,  however,  leave  the  galls  as  soon  as  they 
are  hatched. 

Gall-making  species  are  found  in  several  of  the 
orders  of  insects.  The  two  gall-gnats  mentioned 
here  belong  to  the  order  Diptera.  Place  specimens 
in  your  collection  with  other  Diptera  under  a  copy 
of  the  following  label : — 

Family  Cecidomyiid^  (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-dae). 
T/ie  Gall-gnats. 


BROOK   LIFE. 


163 


The  Alder-blight  {Field  and  School  Work). — One 
often  finds  on  the  trunks  and  branches  of  alders 
growing"  on  the  margins  of  streams  large  patches  of 
snowy-white  matter.  These  patches  are  composed  of 
many  insects  crowded  together  and  covered  with  a 
downy  excretion.  Such  insects  are  known  as  woolly- 
aphids.  There  are  several  kinds  of  common  woolly- 
aphids.  That  which  lives  on  the  alder  is  known  as 
the  alder-blight,  another  kind  living  on  beech  trees  is 
called  the  beech-tree  blight,  and  a  third  kind,  infesting 
apple  trees,  is  the  woolly-aphis-of-the-apple.  All  of 
these  secrete  large  quantities  of  honey-dew. 

Each  aphid  has  its  beak  inserted  into  the  bark  of 
the  infested  tree.  By  cutting  off  a  section  of  an  in- 
fested branch  and  putting  it  in  a  cyanide  bottle,  the 
insects  can  be  killed,  and  most  of  them  will  remain 
clinging  to  the  branch.  It  can  then  be  pinned  into 
the  collection.  The  aphids  belong  to  the  order 
Hemiptera ;  place  specimens  under  the  following 
label  :— 

Family  Aphidid^e  (A-phid'i-dae). 

T/ie  Plajit-lice  or  Aphids  {Aph'ids). 

The    Wanderer   {Field  aiid  School   Work).— The 
name  wanderer  has  been  applied 
to   a   butterfly    (Fig.    134)  that  is 
found  only  in  limited  localities,  al- 
though it  occurs  from    Maine  to 
Florida  and   westward  to  Kansas. 
It  prefers  the  borders  of  streams  pio.  134. -The  wanderer. 
and    marshy    places  where   alder 
grows ;  and  now  that  its  life  history  is  known,  this 
fact  is  explained.     The  caterpillars  of  nearly  all  but- 


164  INSECT   LIFE. 

terflies  feed  on  plants,  but  the  larva  of  this  species 
is  truly  carnivorous,  feeding  on  the  wooUy-aphids 
known  as  the  alder-blight. 

If  the  alder-blight  is  common  in  your  locality, 
search  colonies  of  it  for  the  larvag  of  this  butterfly. 
They  will  be  found  burrowing  through  the  downy 
mass,  and  their  paths  will  be  marked  by  the  remains 
of  their  victims.  They  resemble  grubs  more  than 
ordinary  caterpillars,  and  are  more  or  less  covered 
with  the  white  excretion  of  the  plant-lice.  Their 
legs  and  prolegs  are  short  and  small,  allowing  the 
body  to  be  closely  pressed  to  the  bark  of  the  branch. 
By  collecting  these  caterpillars  and  feeding  them  with 
the  alder-blight,  the  transformations  of  the  butterfly 
can  be  easily  observed.  If  you  do  this,  save  speci- 
mens of  larvae,  pupse,  pupa  skins,  and  adults  for  your 
collection.  This  species  should  be  labeled  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Order  Lepidoptera  (Lep-i-dop'te  ra). 

The  Moths,  the  Skippers,  and  the  Butterflies. 

Family  Lyc^nid^  (Ly-caen'i-dae). 

The  Gossamer-winged  Butterflies. 

The  Grouse-locusts  {Field  and  School  Work).— 
There  is  a  group  of  small  locusts  the   members  of 
which  are  remarkable  for  the  shape  of 
the    pronotum.      This    projects    back- 
ward like  a  little  roof  over  the  wings. 
Fig.  135.  and  often  extends  beyond  Ihe  end  of 

A  grouse-locust.  -^  ttt-    1        1 

the  abdomen  (rig.  135).  Vvith  these 
insects  the  fore  wings  are  in  the  shape  of  small,  rough 
scales,  the  hind  wings  being  protected  by  the  pro- 
notum. 


BROOK   LIFE.  165 

The  grouse-locusts  are  commonly  found  in  low, 
wet  places  and  on  the  borders  of  streams.  They 
prefer  the  broad  gravelly  stretches  where  there  is 
little  or  no  vegetation,  the  low  banks  that  are  swept 
by  the  water  when  the  streams  are  high.  They  vary 
greatly  in  color,  their  color  being  usually  similar  to 
that  of  the  soil  on  which  they  live.  They  are  very 
active,  and  hence  difficult  to  catch  without  the  use 
of  a  net.  In  studying  these  insects  in  the  field  note 
especially  the  protective  nature  of  their  colors.  Pre- 
pare one  or  more  specimens  for  your  collection  by 
spreading  the  wings  so  as  to  show  the  relative  size 
of  the  fore  and  hind  wings. 
Label  them  as  follows  : — 

Order  Orthoptera  (Or-thop'te-ra). 

Cockroaches^  Crickets^  Grasshoppers,  and  Others. 

Family  Acridid^  (A-crid'i-dae). 

The  Locusts,  or  Short-horned  Grasshoppers, 


CHAPTER   VI. 


ORCHARD    LIFE. 


An  orchard  is  an  excellent  place  for 
Nature  study.     Here  live  many  kinds 
of   tiny    creatures,  each    kind  with    its 
own  peculiar  mode  of  life.     Some  have 
comparatively    simple      life     histories, 
merely  eating   and  growing-  and  final- 
ly laying  eggs  for  another  generation  ; 
but   others   undergo    wonderful   transfor- 
mations, and   still   others    exhibit   an    in- 
stinct that  seems  much  like  reason.     And 
even  those  that  appear  to  live  the  most 
humdrum    existence    are  well  worthy   of 
careful  study,  for  their  lives  are  never  as 
simple  as  they  seem  at  first  sight. 

By  a  study  of  orchard  life  there  may 
be  learned  also  much  that  is  of  immediate 
practical  importance ;  some  of  the  most 
dreaded  insect  pests  infest  fruit  trees.  A 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  ways  of  these 
depredators  enables  us  to  plan  successful- 
ly methods  of  destroying  them,  and  thus 
to  prevent  their  ravages. 
Knotgrasiand  To  Carry  ou  this  study  it  is  not  neces- 

hSitie^Gaf^rf-   ^^^3^  ^^  ^^  ^^  ^  large  orchard.     Except  in 
idea poiygoni.    a   city,  almost   every    dwelling-house   has 

i66 


Plate  VII.  DANDELIONS  AND   A   LOCUST. 


ORCHARD    LIFE. 


167 


some  fruit  trees  about  it,  and  these  are  sure  to  be  in- 
fested by  some  of  the  insects  described  in  this  chap- 
ter. And  the  boys  and  girls  that  live  in  cities  can 
find  fruit  trees  with  a  little  effort. 

This  chapter  is  restricted  to  insects  infesting 
fruit  trees.  Many  other  kinds  of  insects  may  be 
found  on  grass  and  other  herbage  about  orchards  ; 
some  of  these  are  described  in  the  chapter  on  Road- 
side Life. 

Under  the  high-top  sweeting-, 
Many  a  playmate  came  to  share 

The  sports  of  our  merry  meeting: 
Zigzag  butterflies,  many  a  pair, 
Doubled  and  danced  in  the  sunny  air  ; 
The  yellov/  wasp  was  a  visitor  there  ; 
The  cricket  chirped  from  his  grassy  lair ; 
Even  the  squirrel  would  sometimes  dare 
Look  down  upon  us,  with  curious  stare ; 
The  bees  plied  fearless  their  honeyed  care 
Almost  beside  us,  nor  seemed  aware 
Of  human  presence  ;  and  when  the  glare 
Of  day  was  done,  and  the  eve  was  fair. 
The  fireflies  glimmered  everywhere. 
Like  diamond-sparkles  in  beauty's  hair. 

In  the  boughs  of  the  high-top  sweeting. 
The  humming-bird,  with  his  gem-bright  eye. 

Paused  there  to  sip  the  clover. 
Or  whizzed  like  a  rifle-bullet  by  ; 
The  katydid,  with  its  rasping  dry. 
Made  forever  the  same  reply. 
Which  laughing  voices  would  still  deny ; 
And  the  beautiful  four-winged  dragon-fly 
Darted  among  us,  now  low,  now  high, 
And  we  sprang  aside  with  a  startled  cry, 
Fearing  the  fancied  savagery 

Of  the  harmless  and  playful  rover. 


l68  INSECT    LIFE. 

The  flying  grasshopper  clacked  his  wings. 

Like  castanets  gayly  beating ; 
The  toad  hopped  by  us,  with  jolting  springs  ; 
The  yellow  spider  that  spins  and  swings 
Swayed  on  its  ladder  of  silken  strings  ; 
The  shy  cicada,  whose  noon-voice  rings 
So  piercing  shrill  that  it  almost  stings 
The  sense  of  hearing,  and  all  the  things 
Which  the  fervid  northern  summer  brings — 
The  world  that  buzzes  and  crawls  and  sings — 

Were  friends  of  the  high-top  sweeting. 

Elizabeth  Akers.'^ 


INSECTS    INFESTING    FOLIAGE. 

The  Apple-tree  Tent-caterpillar  {Field  and 
School  Work). — In  early  spring,  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
begin  to  expand,  conspicuous  webs  may  be  found  on 
the  branches  of  apple  and  other  trees.  The  begin- 
ning of  such  a  web  is  represented  in  the  upper  part 
of  Fig.  137.  These  webs  are  the  "tents"  of  the 
apple-tree  tent-caterpillar — an  insect  that  is  social 
while  in  the  caterpillar  state.  Each  colony  consists 
of  the  larvae  that  have  hatched  from  a  cluster  of  eggs 
deposited  b}^  a  moth  on  a  twig  near  the  place  where 
the  web  is  afterward  built.  Such  a  cluster  of  eggs  is 
represented  above  the  web  in  the  figure.  Usually, 
however,  the  tent  is  built  much  farther  from  the  ^gg^ 
cluster  than  is  shown  here. 

1.  Search  for  egg-clusters  on  the  twigs  of  apple 
before  the  leaves  af)pear  ;  they  can  be  found  at  any 
time  during  the  winter  or  early  spring. 

2.  If  egg-clusters  are  found,  examine  them  from 

*  From  The  High-top  Sweeting,  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons. 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


169 


day  to  day  and  ascertain  the  date  of  hatching  of  the 
larvae. 

3.  If  the  larvae  hatch  before  the  leaf-buds  open, 
ascertain  upon  what  the  larvae  feed  at  this  time. 


Fig.  137. — The  apple-tree  tent-caterpillar,  eggs,  tent,  larva,  cocoons,  and  adult. 

4.  If. egg-clusters  are  not  found,  search  for  webs. 
Upon  what  kinds  of  trees  other  than  apple  can  these 
be  found  ? 

5.  If  possible,  find  a  specimen  in  a  convenient 
place  to  study — where  it  can  be  examined  daily.  If 
none  is  found  near  the  school  or  the  home  of  the 
pupil,  or  near  some  street  between  the  tw^o,  cut  off  a 


I^O  INSECT    LIFE. 

branch  bearing  a  tent,  and  tie  it  to  a  branch  of  another 
tree  of  the  same  kind  in  a  convenient  place. 

6.  Describe  the  position,  form,  and  structure  of 
one  of  these  tents.  Of  what  is  it  made  ?  Where 
does  the  substance  of  which  it  is  made  come  from  ? 
How  is  the  tent  held  in  place  ?  How  is  it  increased 
in  size  ?     Make  a  picture  of  a  tent. 

7.  Describe  one  of  the  caterpillars  that  lives  in 
this  tent  (see  page  325). 

8.  Upon  what  do  the  caterpillars  feed  ?  At  what 
time  of  the  day  do  they  feed  ?  How  far  do  they  go 
for  their  food  ? 

9.  Are  the  paths  over  which  the  caterpillars  go  to 
and  from  their  food  marked  in  any  way  ?     If  so,  how  ? 

10.  The  way  in  which  this  pest  is  usually  fought 
is  by  destroying  the  caterpillars  in  their  tents.  Can 
this  be  done  better  at  one  time  of  day  than  another? 
If  so,  when  ? 

11.  Search  for  the  remains  of  the  cluster  of  eggs 
from  which  a  colony  of  tent-caterpillars  have  hatched. 
Carefully  describe  this  cluster.  Make  a  picture  of  it. 
Preserve  the  specimen  for  your  collection. 

12.  Put  a  branch  of  the  kind  of  tree  upon  which 
the  caterpillars  are  feeding  in  water  in  a  breeding 
cage.  Select  a  branch  which  bears  many  leaves. 
Place  fifteen  or  twenty  caterpillars  on  this  branch,  in 
order  to  keep  them  confined,  and  thus  be  able  to 
observe  their  transformations.  Put  fresh  branches 
in  the  cage  when  necessary  to  keep  the  larvse  sup- 
plied with  food. 

13.  What  do  the  caterpillars  do  when  full  grown? 
Observe  their  actions  in  your  breeding  cage  and  in 
the  field. 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


171 


14.  Preserve  some  caterpillars  in  alcohol,  and 
put  them  in  your  collection  near  the  cluster  of 
eggs. 

15.  Observe  and  describe  the  making-  of  cocoons. 
Note  the  date  when  the  cocoons  are  made. 

16.  After  you  are  familiar  with  the  appearance  of 
the  cocoons,  look  for  them  out  of  doors,  and  find  out 
where  they  are  made. 

17.  Open  a  cocoon  a  few  days  after  it  is  made, 
and  describe  the  pupa. 

18.  Preserve  a  pupa  in  alcohol,  and  put  it  next  to 
the  larvse  in  your  collection. 

19.  Watch  for  the  appearance  of  the  adult  moths, 
and  thus  determine  the  duration  of  the  pupa  state. 

20.  Preserve  specimens  of  the  cocoons  and  moths. 
First  kill  the  moths  by  putting  them  in  the  killing 
bottle,  then  pin  and  spread  them.  When  dry,  take 
them  from  the  spreading  board,  and  put  them  in  the 
collection  with  the  other  specimens  illustrating  the 
transformations  of  the  species.  Try  to  get  both  sexes 
of  the  moth ;  the  females  are  larger  than  the  males, 
and  have  narrower  antennae. 

21.  Make  a  picture  of  the  moth. 

22.  Write  an  account  of  the  life  history  of  this 
insect. 

23.  Arrange  the  specimens  of  the  apple-tree  tent- 
caterpillar  in  your  collection  under  a  copy  of  the 
following  labels : — 

Order  Lepidoptera  (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). 

The  Moths ^  the  Skippers^  and  the  Butterflies. 

Family  LASiocAMPiDiE  (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dae). 

The  Lasiocampids  i^Las-i-o-cam'pids). 


J  ^2  INSECT   LIFE. 

Note. — There  are  several  species  of  tent-caterpillars  in  the  United 
States.  The  most  common  one  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  is  the  one 
figured  above — the  apple-tree  tent-caterpillar,  Clisiocampa  americana 
{Clis-i-o-cani pa  a-nier-i-cd no).  Another  species  that  occurs  in  this  region 
is  the  tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest,  Clisiocampa  disstria  {C.  dis'stri-a). 
The  larva  of  this  species  differs  in  having  a  row  of  spots  along  the  middle 
of  the  back  instead  of  a  continuous,  narrovi'  line.  This  species  will  an- 
swer just  as  well  for  the  work  outlined  above  as  the  apple-tree  tent- 
caterpillar. 

The  more  common  tent-caterpillars  of  the  Pacific  coast  are  Clisio- 
campa calif  arnica  (C.  cal-i-for  ni-ca),  whose  webs  may  be  found  on  oaks 
in  March  and  April,  and  Clisiocampa  constricta  (C.  con-sl?icta),  which  in- 
fests fruit  trees  later  in  the  season.  The  caterpillars  of  the  last-named 
species  do  not  make  tents,  although  they  live  in  colonies. 

Other  Leaf-eating  Caterpillars  (Fie/d  and 
School  Work). — There  are  many  kinds  of  caterpillars 
that  feed  on  the  foliage  of  other  fruit  trees,  any  one 
of  which  will  serve  as  a  good  subject  for  study.  It 
would  take  too  much  space  to  describe  many  of  these 
and  to  outline  the  method  of  study  of  them,  as  has 
been  done  above  for  the  tent-caterpillars.  The  fol- 
lowing brief  outline  will  be  all  that  is  necessary  for 
the  pupils  that  have  carefully  studied  several  of  the 
insects  already  described  : — 

1.  Collect  larvse  found  feeding  on  the  foliage  of 
fruit  trees.  Try  to  get  several  specimens  of  each 
kind,  and  note  carefully  upon  what  they  were  feed- 
ing. 

2.  Put  each  kind  of  larva  into  a  separate  breeding 
cage  (see  pages  327  to  330  for  descriptions  of  breeding 
cages),  and  feed  each  with  leaves  from  the  kind  of 
tree  on  which  it  was  found.  Keep  the  food  fresh  by 
placing  the  stems  in  water,  and  renew  it  daily. 

3.  Make  careful  notes  on  the  habits  of  the  insects, 
and  describe  each  stage  in  their  development. 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


173 


4.  Save  specimens  for  your  collection  of  anything 
illustrating-  the  habits  of  the  species  and  specimens 
of  each  of  the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  species. 
Arrange  these  specimens  in  your  collection,  labeled 
as  fully  as  you  can. 

5.  Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  more  common  of 

the  orchard  insects  that  feed  on  foliao^e : — 

The  yellow-necked  apple-tree- worm,  Datana  minis- 
tra   {Da-ta'na    mi-nis'trd). — This    caterpillar   has    the 


Fig.  138. — The  yellow-necked  apple-tree-worm. 

curious  habit  of  assuming  the  attitude  shown  in  Fig. 
138.  It  feeds  on  forest  trees  as  well  as  fruit  trees. 
It  remains  throughout  the 
winter  in  the  pupa  state. 
Fig.  139  represents  the 
adult.  There  are  sev- 
eral closely  allied  species 
which  feed  on  forest  trees. 
The  red -humped  ap- 
ple-worm,   Gidemasia    con-  fig.  139. 


174 


INSECT   LIFE. 


cinna  {CEd-e-ma' si-a  con-cin'nd). — The  larva  of  the  spe- 
cies has  a  coral-red  head,  and  there  is  a  hump  of 
the  same  color  on  the   back  of  the  first  abdominal 


Fig.  140.— The  red-humped  apple-worm 

segment  (Fig.  140).      This  species  passes  the  winter 
in  the  pupa  state,  and  the  adults  appear  in  June  and 

July. 

The  measuring-worms. — There  are  many  kinds  of 

_^  these.     Fig.  141  represents 

one    of    them.      They    are 

called  measuring-worms  on 

account  of  the  curious  way 

in  which  they  walk.     The 

most  important  species  that 

infest  fruit  trees  are  known 

Fig.  141.— A  measuring- worm. 

as  canker-worms.  1  here 
are  two  species  of  canker-worms,  which  are  very 
similar  in  appearance  and  habits.  In  both 
the  adult  female  is  wingless  (Fig.  142), 
while  the  male  (Fig.  143)  has  well-devel- 
oped wings. 

The  white-marked  tussock-moth,  No- 
tolophus  leucostigma  {No-tol' o-phus  leu-co- 
stig' md).—l:\)S.'s^    caterpillar   (Fig.    144)   is 


Fig.  142.— Fe- 
male canker- 
worm. 


,1    .-j^i^i  "-loB.    3tJiJ-iioB9' 

fiquq   714  ^     gil    ;  tjlams't    ,.      ^.  : 

ji  moil  gnrjoaioiq  ni^Is 

B7Tl4     aril  -...<v\-sr,     .,\cv,\t._       -tfts-^i-jr/i     i,<:»Ttr,n  >_trl:-. 'rl      =,  H 


.BidiorfquH  lo  ^i^viiuLoiIj  no 
£V7£i    J)  1  Ayn'\  ,gin3rniq3  9niv-=iq-f:iO  sriT 

iigiiV'  btiB  sqBi^  'io  e9VJ5t)I  sr; 

■.rfj    no    r      .  _  3f{T       .v;u>v.    .,-=A^-u^x-A\    ,rifo, 


Plate  VIII.— FOREST    AND    ORCHARD    MOTHS. 

FIGURE 

I,   2,   and  3.     The    Peach-tree    Borer,    Sannina  exitiosa.     Fig.   i, 

male  ;    Fig.   2,   female  ;    Fig.   3,   cocoon  with  empty  pupa 

skin  projecting  from  it. 
4.     The  Eight-spotted  Forester,  Alypia  octomaculata.     The  larva 

feeds  on  grape  and  Virginia  creeper. 
The  Morning  Forester,  Alypia  matuta. 
The  Pearl  Wood-nymph,  Euthisanotia  tmio.     The  larva  feeds 

on  the  leaves  of  Euphorbia. 
The  Grape-vine  Epimenis,  Psychonwrpha  epinienis.     The  larva 

feeds  on  the  leaves  of  grape  and  Virginia  creeper. 
The   Maia-moth,   Hemileuca  maia.       The  larva  feeds   on   the 

leaves  of  oak. 
The    White-marked    Tussock-moth,    Notolophus    leiicostigma. 

See  page  174;  also  Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  8. 
The    Well-marked    Tussock-moth,    Notolophus   definita.      See 

Plate  XVIII,  Fig.  7,  for  the  larva. 


Plate  VIII. 


\ 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


175 


common  on  both  fruit  and  forest  trees  ;  it  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  larva,  being  ornamented  with 
bright  colors.  The  adult  fe- 
male is  wingless,  and  lays  her 
eggs  in  a  frothy  mass  on  her 
cocoon.  The  male  (Fig.  145) 
has  well-developed  wings. 

The  Plant  -  lice  or 
Aphids  {Field  and  School 
Work).  —  The  plant-lice  or 
aphids  are  minute  insects 
which  live  by  sucking  the  sap  from  the  more  tender 
portions   of   plants.     They   usually   occur   clustered 


Fig.  143. — Male  canker-worm. 


Fig.  144. — The  white-marked  tussock-moth,  larva. 

together  in  large  numbers,  and  may  be  either  winged 
or  wingless  (Fig.  146).  Many  kinds  of  aphids  can  be 
found    in  any  orchard  ;   among   the    more   common 


Fig.  146. — A  gjoup  of  aphids. 


176 


INSECT    LIFE, 


species  are  the  green  ones  that  are  very  abundant 
some  years  on  the  tips  of  branches  of  apple,  and  the 
dark-colored  ones  that  cause  the  leaves  of  peach  and 
cherry  to  curl,  thus  forming  tubes  within  which  they 
live. 

Find  a  colony  of  aphids  in  a  convenient  place 
where  they  can  be  observed  from  day  to  day,  take 
notes  on  their  habits  and  structure,  and  finally  write 
an  account  of  what  you  have  learned.  The  following 
suggestions  will  aid  you  in  this  study: — 

1.  Observe  the  form  of  the  body.  Usually  there 
are  two  forms  of  individuals  in  a  colony — one  wing- 
less, the  other  winged.  Usually  the  greater  num- 
ber of  individuals  are  w^ingless,  and  these  never 
develop  wings.  But  as  aphids  increase  in  numbers 
very  rapidly,  there  is  danger  of  the  destruction  of 
the  food-plant  and  a  consequent  destruction  of  the 
colony.  To  avoid  this  danger,  from  time  to  time 
individuals  are  born  that  develop  wings.  These  fly 
away,  and  start  new  colonies  in  fresh  localities.  The 
nymphs  of  the  winged  form  can  be  recognized  by 
their  wing-pads. 

2.  Observe  the  reproduction  of  aphids.  Both 
the  wingless  and  the  winged  forms  referred  to 
in  the  preceding  paragraph  give  birth  to  living 
young.  In  some  species  the  young  aphid  pro- 
duced in  this  way  is  inclosed  in  a  soft  shell,  but 
usually  not.  The  birth  of  the  young  aphids  can  be 
easily  seen  with  a  hand  lens  at  any  time  during 
the  warmer  part  of  the  year  in  almost  any  colony  of 
aphids. 

3.  The  two  forms  of  aphids  that  are  being  consid- 
ered now  consist  each  of  a  single  sex,  all  of  the  indi- 


ORCHARD    LIFE.  I77 

viduals  being  females.  As  these  females  reproduce 
without  pairing-,  they  are  termed  agamic  ia-gani'ic). 
(The  word  agamic  is  from  two  Greek  words,  mean- 
ing without  marriage.)  The  two  forms  are  designated 
as  the  wingless  agamic  form  and  the  ivinged  agamic 
form  respectively  ;  the  latter  is  often  called  the  mi- 
grating form. 

4.  Collect  specimens  of  the  following  forms  of  the 
species  that  you  are  studying,  and  preserve  them  in 
alcohol:  —  Full-grown  wingless  agamic  females, 
nymphs  of  the  wingless  agamic  form,  winged  agamic 
females,  and  nymphs  of  the  winged  agamic  form. 

5.  Generally  on  the  setting  in  of  cold  weather,  or 
in  some  cases  on  the  failure  of  nourishment,  the 
weather  being  still  warm,  there  is  produced  a  gen- 
eration including  individuals  of  both  sexes.  These 
are  known  as  the  sexual  forms.  The  males  may  be 
either  winged  or  wingless,  but  these  true  females 
are  always  wingless.  The  sexual  forms  pair,  and 
the  female  produces  one  or  more  eggs.  It  is  in 
the  ^gg  state  that  the  species  usually  pass  the  win- 
ter. 

6.  In  the  autumn  watch  for  the  appearance  of  the 
sexual  forms  and  for  eggs. 

7.  Study  the  agamic  forms,  and  note  if  there  is  a 
pair  of  tubes  on  the  back  of  the  sixth  abdominal  seg- 
ment. Sometimes  these  are  represented  by  tubercles 
and  sometimes  they  are  wanting. 

8.  It  has  been  generally  believed  that  through 
these  tubes  or  tubercles  the  sweet,  transparent  fluid, 
which  is  known  as  honey-dew,  is  excreted.  But  it 
has  been  recently  discovered  that  the  honey-dew 
comes   from    the    hind    opening    of    the    alimentary 


178 


INSECT   LIFE. 


canal*      Try   to   observe   the   excretion    of    honey- 
dew. 

9.  Find  a  colony  of  aphids  that  is  attended  by 
ants,  and  determine  why  the  ants  are  there. 

INSECTS    THAT    PREY    UPON    APHIDS. 

The  Aphis-lions  {Field  and  School  Work). — Look 
among  colonies  of  aphids  for  aphis-lions.  These  are 
spindle-shaped  larvae,  with  very  long,  slender,  curved 
jaws ;  one  of  these  larvae  is  represented  on  the  lower 
left  leaf  in  Fig.  147.     The  aphis-hons  are  most  easily 


Fig.  147.— Eggs,  larva,  cocoon,  and  adult  of  Chrysopa. 

found  in  those  colonies  of  aphids   that  live   within 
curled  leaves. 

I.  Remove  a  small  branch  bearing  a  colony  of 


*  M.  Biirgen.     Der  Honigtau.  Jenaische  Zeitschrift,  Bd.  xxv  (1891), 
s.  387-428. 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


179 


aphids  and  place  it  in  water  or  wet  sand  in  a  breed- 
ing- cage.  Tie  a  wad  of  cotton  about  the  branch  so 
that  aphis-lions  can  not  easily  escape  from  it. 

2.  Collect  several  aphis-lions  and  place  them 
among  the  aphids,  and  observe  their  habits.  If  the 
aphids  are  destroyed  before  the  aphis-lions  get  their 
growth  and  spin  cocoons,  transfer  the  aphis-lions  to 
a  new  colony  of  aphids. 

3.  When  the  aphis-lions  have  made  cocoons, 
transfer  the  cocoons  to  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  cov- 
ered with  netting,  and  leave  them  there  till  the 
adults  emerge.  The  adult  aphis-lion  is  called  a  lace- 
w^inged-fiy. 

4.  Search  for  eggs  of  lace-winged-flies.  They 
can  be  found  on  the  leaves  of  trees  and  bushes, 
attached  by  long,  slender  stalks,  as  shown  in  the 
figure. 

5.  Prepare  a  set  of  specimens  illustrating  the 
transformations  of  lace-winged-flies  or  aphis-lions, 
and  label  them  as  follows  : — 

Order  Neuroptera  (Neu-rop'te-ra). 

Family  Chrysopid^e   (Chry-sop'i-dae). 

The  Lace-winged- flies  or  Aphis-lions. 

The    Lady-bugs    {Field  and  School   Work). — The 
insects  that  are  commonly  called  lady-bugs  are  small 
beetles  which  are  more  or  less  nearly  hemi- 
spherical in  form,  and  generally  red  or  yellow 
with  black  spots,  or  black,  with  white,  red, 
or  yellow  spots.     Fig.  148  represents  a  com- 
mon species.      Lady-bugs,  both  in  the  adult 
and    larval   states,  feed    on   aphids,   other   small   in^ 
sects,  and  the  eggs  of  insects.      The  object  of  this 


i8o 


INSECT    LIFE. 


lesson  is  to  have  the  pupils  observe  the  transforma- 
tions of  some  common  species  of  lady-bug-. 

1.  Collect  larvse  of  lady-bugs  and  place  them  in  a 

breeding  cage  with  a  colony  of  aphids,  put- 
ting onl}^  one  kind  in  a  cage.  These  larvse 
can  be  found  in  the  same  situations  as  the 
aphis-lions  (see  preceding  lesson),  and  resem- 
ble  them  somewhat  in  form.     They  are  not 

Fig.  149.    g^  slender  as  the  aphis-lions,  and  their  jaws 

are  shorter.     Fig.  149  represents  a  common  species. 

The  breeding  cage  should  be  arranged  and  cared  for 

the  same  as  for  aphis-lions. 

2.  Ascertain  the  method  in  which  lady-bugs  pass 
the  pupa  state;    it  is  an  unusual  one.     Fig.  150  rep- 
resents a  pupa. 

3.  Prepare  a  set  of  specimens  illustrating 
the  transformations  of  a  species  of  lady-bug, 
and  place  it  with  3'Our  Coleoptera,  labeled  as 
follows  : — 


Fig.    150. 


Family  Coccinellid/e  (Coc-ci-nel'li-dse). 
The  Lady-bugs. 


INSECTS     INFESTING    FRUIT. 

The  CodliN-MOTH  {Field  and  School  Work). — The 
most  important  pest  of  the  apple  is  the  ''  worm  "  that 
is  frequently  found  feeding  within  the 
fruit  near  its  core.  This  "  worm  "  of 
wormy  apples  is  the  larva  of  a  tiny 
moth,  which  is  known  as  the  codlin- 
moth  (Fig.  151). 

I.  Carefully  examine  a  number  of  wormy  apples 
by  cutting  them  to  pieces,  and.  write  an  account  of 


Fig.  151. 


ORCHARD    LIFE.  l8l 

the  injury  to  them.  Where  does  the  larva  enter  the 
iruit?  Where  is  the  injury  chiefly  done?  Where 
does  the  larva  emerge  from  the  fruit? 

2.  In  what  place  is  it  probable  that  the  eggs  of 
this  insect  are  laid,  judging  by  the  observations  that 
you  have  made  on  the  habits  of  the  larvas? 

3.  Collect  a  large  number  of  the  larvse  by  remov- 
ing them  from  wormy  apples,  and  place  them  in  a 
tightly  closed  jellj^-glass  or  other  small  cage.  Put 
some  pieces  of  apple  in  the  cage  to  serve  as  food. 
Put  also  some  small  pieces  of  bark  in  the  cage  so 
that  the  larvas  may  hide  under  them. 

4.  Describe  the  larva,  and  preserve  some  speci- 
mens in  alcohol. 

5.  Observe  the  larvae  daily  until  they  make  their 
cocoons,  and  then  describe  the  cocoons.  Note  date 
when  the  cocoons  are  made,  so  as  to  determine  the 
length  of  time  spent  by  the  insect  in  its  cocoon. 

6.  Try  to  find  similar  cocoons  under  loose  bark 
on  apple  trees. 

7.  Empty  cocoons  of  this  insect  are  often  found 
under  loose  bark  that  has  been  pierced  by  a  wood- 
pecker in  order  to  feed  on  the  insects.  Preserve 
specimens  of  such  pieces  of  bark  and  cocoons. 

8.  Scrape  the  loose  bark  from   the  trunk   of  an 

apple  tree,  and  then  take  a  piece  of  wrapping  paper 

long  enough  to  reach  around  the  trunk  and  fold  it  so 

as  to  make  a  band  about  three  inches  wide,  and  fasten 

this  band  about  the  trunk.     The  band  can  be  fastened 

in  place  with  a  tack  or  with  a  cord.     Look  beneath 

this  band  once  a  week,  and  collect  the  larvas  and 

pupas  that  you  find  there,  keeping  a  record  of  the 

number  found  each  week. 
13 


l82 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Note. — At  one  time  fruit-growers  fought  the  codlin-raoth  by  collect- 
incr  the  larvae  and  pupoe  in  this  way  and  destroying  them.  It  has  been 
found,  however,  that  a  better  way  is  to  spray  the  apple  trees  just  after 
the  blossoms  fall  with  Paris-green-water.  By  this  means  the  larvae  are 
poisoned  before  they  eat  their  way  into  the  young  fruit. 

9.  Examine  the  cage  containing  cocoons  daily  in 
order  to  determine  the  date  of  emergence  of  the 
moths. 

10.  There  is  more  than  one  generation  of  this  in- 
sect each  year.  Determine  by  breeding  the  number 
of  generations  in  your  locality,  and  the  method  of 
passing  the  winter. 

11.  Write  an  account  of  the  life  history  of  this 
insect. 

12.  Prepare  a  set  of  specimens  illustrating  the 
transformations  of  this  species,  place  them  with  the 
Lepidoptera  in  your  collection,  and  label  them  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Superfamily  Tortricina  (Tor-tri-ci'na). 

The  Tortricids  [Tor'tri-cids). 

Carpocapsa  pomonella  {Car-po-cap' sa pom-o-neVla). 

The  Codlin-moth. 

The  Plum-CURCULIO  {Field  and  School  Work). — 
The  plum-curculio  is  the  insect  that  stings  immature 
plums,  laying  eggs  in  them,  from  which  hatch  grubs, 
that  cause  the  fruit  to  fall  prematurely. 

This  insect  also  infests  the  peach,  nectarine,  apri- 
cot, and  cherry.  In  the  case  of  the  cherry  the  in- 
fested fruit  does  not  fall,  but  ripens  with  the  larvas 
in  it,  the  larvas  being  the  well-known  ''  worm  "  of 
"  wormy  cherries." 

The  study  of  this  insect  should  begin  early  in  the 
season,  for  the  eggs  are  laid  in  the  young  fruit. 


ORCHARD   LIFE.  1 83 

I.  Search  for  the  eggs  in  any  of  the  fruits  named 
above.  Their  presence  can  be  easily  determined  by 
a  peculiar  mark  made  by  the  female  when  laying  her 
eggs.  A  hole  is  made  through  the  skin  of  the  fruit, 
and  into  this  hole  the  egg  is  put.  The  insect  then 
makes  a  crescent-shaped  incision  partly  surrounding 
the  one  containing  the  egg. 

2.  If  the  dot  and  crescent  mark  is  found  on  the 
fruit,  search  should  be  made  for  the  adult  insects. 
These  are  most  easily  found  early  in  the  season,  and 
can  be  readily  obtained  by  spreading  a  cloth  under 
an  infested  tree  and  jarring  the  tree.  The  adults 
will  drop  to  the  ground  feigning  death.  Specimens 
should  be  pinned  for  your  collection. 

The  adult  is  a  beetle.  It  is  about  one  fifth  of  an 
inch  in  length,  and  is  dark  brown  spotted  with  black, 
yellow,  and  white.  The  wing-covers  are  rough,  and 
the  head  is  prolonged  into  a  snout,  which  is  bent 
back  under  the  prothorax  when  at  rest. 

3.  Preserve  in  alcohol  specimens  of  fruit  showing 
the  dot  and  crescent  mark.  Cherries  will  be  most 
available  for  this  on  account  of  their  small  size.  Pre- 
serve also  specimens  of  the  larvas. 

4.  Describe  the  way  in  which  the  larvas  injure  the 
fruit. 

5.  Place  infested  fruit  in  a  breeding  cage  on  a 
layer  of  earth  ;  determine  method  of  passing  the 
pupa  state  ;  preserve  specimens  of  pupas  ;  and  breed 
the  adult  insect,  so  as  to  determine  whether  the  in- 
sects that  you  collected  by  jarring  are  really  the 
adult  of  this  species. 

6.  Write  an  account  of  the  habits  and  appearance 
of  this  insect. 


1 84 


INSECT    LIFE. 


7.  Label  your  specimens  properly.  The  species 
belongs  to  the  order  Coleoptera ;  the  family  CuRCU- 
LIONID^  (Cur-cu-li-on'i-dse),  The  Curculios  {Cur-cu' li-os) 
or  Weevils ;  and  the  specific  name  of  this  curculio  is 
Conotracheliis  nenuphar  {Con-o-tra-che' lus  nen'u-phor). 

The  Pomace-flies  {Field  and  School  Work). — 
There  are  several  species  of  small  flies,  the  larvse  of 
which  live  in  decaying  fruit ;  and  as  these  insects 
are  often  abundant  about  pomace  in  cider-mills  and 
wineries,  they  have  been  termed  pomace-flies. 

Usually  the  larvse  of  these  flies  can  be  found  in 
decaying  fruit  in  any  orchard  during  the  autumn. 
And  as  they  develop  very  rapidly,  they  are  excellent 
subjects  for  study.  In  the  case  of  one  species  which 
I  studied,  the  complete  life  cycle  occupied  only  from 
eleven  to  seventeen  days. 

1.  Place  in  a  breeding  cage  some  decaying  apples 
or  other  fruit  in  which  there  are  maggots,  There 
should  be  a  layer  of  earth  in  the  breeding  cage,  as 
some  species  of  pomace-flies  pass  the  pupa  state  in 
the  ground. 

2.  Study  the  larva  carefully  and  write  a  description 
of  it.  Note  especially  the  form  of  the  first  pair  of 
spiracles,  which  project  near  the  head  of  the  body, 
as  these  present  the  most  obvious  specific  distinctions 
of  the  larvse  of  the  different  species.  The  form  of 
the  caudal  end  of  the  body  should  be  carefully  studied 
also.  The  skin  of  these  larvse  is  so  transparent  that 
the  larger  tracheae,  or  breathing  tubes,  can  be  easily 
seen  through  it  with  a  low  power  of  the  microscope. 
Make  a  drawing  representing  an  entire  larva,  and 
more  detailed  drawings  representing  each  end  of  the 
body. 


ORCHARD   LIFE. 


185 


3.  When  the  larvse  are  full  grown,  determine 
where  the  pupa  state  is  passed,  and  make  a  drawing- 
of  the  puparium.  The  pupa  state  of  most  flies,  in- 
cluding the  pomace-flies,  is  passed  within  the  dried 
skin  of  the  larva.  This  dried  skin,  which  serves  the 
purposes  of  a  cocoon,  is  termed  a  puparium  i^pu-pa'- 
ri-um). 

4.  Put  some  puparia  in  a  vial  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  duration  of  the  pupa  state. 

5.  When  the  adult  flies  emerge  in  your  breeding 
cage,  save  some  specimens  for  your  collection,  and 
put  some  living  ones  in  a  cage  with  decaying  fruit 
which  is  not  infested.  If  you  have  more  than  one 
species  of  pomace-flies,  put  the  different  species  in 
different  cages.  Try  to  discover  the  eggs  when  they 
are  laid,  and  to  determine  the  duration  of  each  stage 
of  the  insect. 

6.  Write  an  account  of  the  pomace-flies  that  you 
have  studied. 

7.  Prepare  a  set  of  specimens  for  your  collection. 
The  pomace-flies  belong  to  the  order  Diptera,  the 
family  MusciD^  (Mus'ci-dae),  and  to  the  genus  Dro- 
sophila  {Dro-sopJi' i-lci). 


^^^ 

H 

m 

i^^i 

H 

CHAPTER  VII. 

FOREST    LIFE. 

DELIGHTFUL  place  for  the  study  of  in. 
sect  life,  especially  on  a  hot  summer  day, 
is  the  margin  of  a  forest.  Here  abound 
innumerable  species,  exhibiting-  the  great- 
est variety  of  habits.  And  the  charm  of 
a  holiday  spent  in  the  shade  can  be  increased  mani- 
fold by  watching  and  collecting  them. 

The  best  places  for  the  study  of  forest  insects  are 
the  edges  of  woods,  groves,  isolated  forest  trees 
growing  in  open  fields  or  by  roadsides,  and  fringes 
of  trees  along  the  banks  of  streams.  The  depths  of 
dense  forests  are  inhabited  b}^  a  much  smaller  number 
of  kinds  of  insects  than  the  places  just  named. 

In  the  chapters  on  Pond  Life,  Brook  Life,  and 
Orchard  Life  detailed  directions  have  been  given  for 
the  study  of  the  insects  mentioned.  But  by  the  time 
the  student  has  reached  this  chapter  he  should  have 
become  sufficiently  familiar  with  the  methods  of 
study  to  be  able  to  plan  his  own  investigations ; 
hence  the  chief  object  of  this  chapter  is  to  point  out 
subjects  for  study. 

'Tis  a  woodland  enchanted  ! 
The  great  August  noonlight, 
i86 


FOREST   LIFE.  jg? 


Through  myriad  rifts  slanted, 

Leaf  and  bole  thickly  sprinkles 

With  flickering  gold  ; 

There,  in  warm  August  gloaming, 

With  quick,  silent  brightenings. 

From  meadow-lands  roaming. 

The  firefly  twinkles 

His  fitful  heat-lightnings. — Lowell. 

THE    LARGER    LEAF-EATING    CATERPILLARS. 

The  Giant  Silkivorms. 

The  largest  of  the  leaf-eating  insects  found  on  our 
forest  trees  are  the  giant  silkworms.  There  are 
several  species  of  these,  and  some  of  them  can  be 
found  in  almost  any  of  the  inhabited  portions  of  our 
country. 

These  larvae  frequently  attract  attention  on  ac- 
count of  their  large  size,  and  the  adults  are  favorites 
with  young  collectors,  being  the  most  showy  of 
moths. 

It  is  easy  to  rear  these  insects,  beginning  with 
either  eggs,  larvae,  or  pupae.  The  following  general 
directions  for  breeding  will  apply  to  any  of  the 
species : — 

E-ggs  of  the  Giant  Silkworms. — The  eggs  of  the 
giant  silkworm  moths,  being  of  large  size,  are  fre- 
quently found  attached  to  leaves  of  the  trees  upon 
which  the  larvae  feed,  but  they  are  more  often  ob- 
tained from  moths  kept  in  confinement.  When  a 
female  moth  is  captured  it  is  usually  only  necessary 
to  place  her  in  a  breeding  cage,  and  keep  her  alive 
for  a  few  days,  in  order  to  obtain  fertile  eggs.  The 
females  of  this  family  of  moths  can  be  recognized  by 


1 88  INSECT   LIFE, 

the  fact  that  the  antennas  are  not  so  large  as  are  the 
antennae  of  the  males.  In  case  a  female  moth  is  bred 
from  a  cocoon,  it  is  necessary  that  she  should  be  al- 
lowed to  mate  with  a  male  in  order  that  her  eggs  be 
fertilized.  It  there  be  no  males  in  the  cage  with  her, 
males  can  usually  be  obtained  by  leaving  the  cage 
near  an  open  window  for  a  day  or  two.  Frequently 
under  such  conditions  males  will  come  to  the  cage 
in  large  numbers.  Having  obtained  eggs,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  ascertain  the  food  plant  of  the  larva  ;  the 
more  common  food  plants  of  each  of  the  species  is 
given  below. 

LarvcB  of  the  Giant  Silkzvorms. — These  larvae  can 
be  found  throughout  the  summer  months,  but  they 
are  more  frequently  observed  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
season,  when  they  are  nearly  or  quite  full  grown. 
The  collection  of  them  is  greatly  facilitated  by 
searching  beneath  the  trees  on  which  they  live  for 
the  pellets  of  excrement  which  drop  to  the  ground 
from  where  they  are  feeding.  In  collecting  them, 
note  carefully  their  food  plant. 

Cocoons  of  the  Giant  Silkworms. — The  pupa  state 
of  the  giant  silk-worms  is  passed  within  dense  silken 
cocoons,  which  have  suggested  their  popular  name. 
All  of  our  species  pass  the  winter  in  this  state,  and 
several  of  them  fasten  their  cocoons  to  the  branches 
of  trees  ;  consequently  it  is  during  the  winter  months, 
■while  the  trees  are  bare,  that  the  cocoons  are  most 
often  collected.  Cocoons  which  are  collected  during 
the  winter  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  place  till  spring, 
so  that  the  adults  shall  not  emerge  before  it  is  possi- 
ble to  find  food  for  the  larvas  that  will  hatch  from 
their  eggs.     Even  when  it  is  not  desired  to  breed  a 


Plate  IX. 


A   FOREST  AISLE. 


FOREST   LIFE. 


189 


second  generation,  it  is  undesirable  to  keep  the 
cocoons  during  the  winter  months  in  a  warm,  dry 
room,  for  there  is  apt  to  be  insufficient  moisture  in 
the  air  of  such  a  room  for  the  perfect  development 
of  the  insects. 

Classification  of  the  Giant  Silkworms. — The  giant 
silkworms,  being  the  larvse  of  moths,  belong  to  the 
order  Lepidoptera.  These  moths  constitute  the  family 
Saturniid^  (Sat-ur-ni'i-dse).  The  scientific  name  of 
each  of  the  species  mentioned  below  is  given  after 
the  popular  name.  The  following  are  the  more 
common  North  American  species  : — 

The  Io-MOTH,  Automeris  io  {Au-tom'e-ris  i'o). — 
This  is  the  most  common  of  the  smaller  species  of 
the  family.  The  female  is  represented  by  Fig.  152. 
In   this  sex  the  ground  color  of  the  fore  wings  is 


Fig.  152. — The  io-moth. 


purplish  red.  The  male  differs  greatly  in  appear- 
ance, being  somewhat  smaller  and  of  a  deep  yellow 
color,  but  it  can  be  easily  recognized  by  its  general 
resemblance  to  the  female  in  other  respects. 


190 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Fig.  153. — Larva  of  the  io-moth. 


The  larva  (Fig.  153)  is  one  that  the  student  should 
learn  to  recognize  in  order  that  he  may  avoid  han- 
dling it,   for  it  is  armed   with   spines   the   prick  of 

which  is  venom- 
ous. It  is  green, 
with  a  broad 
brown  or  reddish 
stripe,  edged  be- 
low with  white  on 
each  side  of  the 
abdomen  ;  the  spines  are  tipped  with  black.  It  feeds 
on  the  leaves  of  apple,  cherr}^  willowy  elm,  currant, 
and  many  other  plants.  The  cocoon  is  thin ;  it  is 
usually  surrounded  by  leaves,  and  made  near  the 
ground.  The  adults  sometimes  emerge  in  the  au- 
tumn, but  usually  not  till  spring. 

The  Polyphemus-moth,  Telea  polyphemus  {Te'le-a 
pol-y-phe' vius). — This  is  a  3'ellowish  or  brownish  moth, 
with  a  windowlike  spot  in  each  wing.  There  is  a 
gray  band  on  the  front  margin  of  the  fore  wings,  and 
near  the  outer  margin  of  both  pairs  of  wings  there  is 
a  dusky  band,  edged  without  with  pink:  the  fore 
wings  are  crossed  by  a  broken  dusty  or  reddish  line 
near  the  base,  edged  within  with  white  or  pink.  The 
transparent  spot  on  each  wing  is  divided  by  a  vein 
and  encircled  by  yellow  and  black  rings.  The  wings 
expand  from  five  to  six  inches. 

The  larva  (Fig.  154)  feeds  on  oak,  basswood,  but- 
ternut, elm,  maple,  apple,  plum,  and  other  trees. 
When  full  grown,  it  measures  three  inches  or  more 
in  length.  It  is  of  a  light  green  color,  with  an  oblique 
yellow  line  on  each  side  of  each  abdominal  segment 
except  the  first  and  last ;  the  last  segment  is  bordered 


FOREST   LIFE. 


IQI 


by  a  purplish  brown  V-shaped  mark.     The  tubercles 
on  the  body  are  small,  of  an  orange  color,  with  me- 


FiG.  154.— Larva  of  the  Polyphemus-moth. 


tallic  reflections.  The  cocoon  (Fig.  155)  is  dense  and 
usually  inclosed  in 
a  leaf.  Sometimes 
it  is  fastened  to  a 
twig,  but  ordinari- 
ly it  falls  to  the 
ground  with  the  ^^ 
leaves  in  the  au- 
tumn.    Observe  and     Fig.  155.— Cocoon  of  the  Polyphemus-moth. 


192 


INSECT    LIFE. 


describe  the  method  of  exit  of  the  adult  from  the 
cocoon. 

The  Luna-moth,  Tropcea  luna  {Tro-pce'a  lu'nd).— 
This  is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  giant  silkworm 
moths.  Its  wings  are  of  a  delicate  light  green  color, 
with  a  purple-brown  band  on  the  front  edge  of  the 


Fig.  156.— The  luna-moth. 


fore  wings.     It  can  be  easily  recognized  by  Fig.  156. 
The  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  walnut,  hickory, 


FOREST    LIFE. 


193 


and  other  forest  trees.  It  measures  when  full  grown 
about  three  inches  in  length.  It  is  pale  bluish 
green,  with  a  pearl-colored  head.  It  has  a  pale  yel- 
low stripe  along  each  side  of  the  body,  and  a  trans- 
verse yellow  line  on  the  back  between  each  two 
abdominal  segments.  The  cocoon  resembles  that  of 
the  preceding  species  in  form,  but  is  very  thin,  con- 
taining but  little  silk.  It  is  found  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground  beneath  the  trees  on  which  the  larv^ 
feed. 

The  Promethea-MOTH,  Callosamia  prometJiea  {Cal- 
lo-sa' mi-a  pro-me' the-d). — The  female  moth  of  this  spe- 
cies can  be  recognized  by  Fig.  157.     The  male  differs 


Fig.  157. — The  Promethea-moth,  female. 

so  greatly  from  the  female  that  it  is  liable  to  be  mis- 
taken for  a  distinct  species.  It  is  blackish,  with  the 
transverse  lines  very  faint,  and  with  the  spot  near 
the  center  of  each  wing  wanting  or  very  faintly  indi- 


194 


INSECT    LIFE. 


cated.  The  fore  wings  also  differ  markedly  in  shape 
from  those  of  the  female,  the  apex  of  each  being 
much  more  distinctly  sickle-shaped.  We  have  ob- 
tained forty  males  of  this 
species  in  a  single  after- 
noon by  placing  a  cage 
containing  living  females 
near  an  open  window. 
They  fly  most  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  afternoon. 
The  larva  when  full-grown  measures 
two  inches  or  more  in  length.  It  is  of 
a  clear  and  pale  bluish  green  color ; 
the  legs  and  oval  shield  are  yellowish, 
and  the  body  is  armed  with  longitudi- 
nal rows  of  tubercles.  The  tubercles 
are  black,  polished,  wartlike  elevations, 
excepting  two  each  on  the  second  and 
third  thoracic  segments,  which  are 
larger  and  rich  coral-red,  and  one  sim- 
ilar in  size  to  these,  but  of  a  yellow 
color,  on  the  eighth  abdominal  seg- 
ment. This  larva  feeds  on  the  leaves 
of  a  large  proportion  of  our  common 
fruit  and  forest  trees,  but  we  have 
found  it  most  frequently  on  wild  cher- 
ry and  ash  and  on  lilac.  The  cocoons 
can  be  easily  collected  during  the  win- 
ter from  these  trees.  The  cocoon  is 
Fig.  is8.-Cocoon    greatly  elongated,  and  is  inclosed  in  a 

cfU|ePromethea-     ^^^^^  ^^^    petiolc    of     which     is     SCCUrcly 

fastened  to  the  branch    by   a   band   of 
silk  extending  from  the  cocoon  (Fig.   158).     At  the 


FOREST    LIFE. 


195 


Upper  end  of  the  cocoon  there  is  a  conical,  valve- 
like arrangement,  which  allows  the  adult  to  emerge 
without  the  necessity  of  making  a  hole  through 
the  cocoon.  Cut  one  of  your  cocoons  in  two  cross- 
wise so  as  to  see  this  valve. 

The   Cecropia-MOTH,  Samia  cecropia   {Sa'ini-a  ce- 
cro'pi-d). — This  is  the  largest  of  our  giant  silkworm. 


Fig.  159. — The  Cecropia-moth. 


moths,  the  wings  expanding  from  five  to  six  inches 
and  a  half.     It  can  be  recognized  by  Fig.  159.     The 
larva  is  known  to  feed  on  at  least  fifty  species  of 
14 


96 


INSECT    LIFE. 


plants,  including  apple,  plum,  and  the  more  common 
forest  trees.  When  full  grown  it  measures  from 
three  to  four  inches  in  length,  and  is  dull  bluish  green 
in  color.  The  body  is  armed  with  six  rows  of  tuber- 
cles, extending  nearly  its  entire  length,  and  there  is 
an  additional  short  row  on  each  side  of  the  ventral 
aspect  of  the  first  five  segments  following  the  head. 
The  tubercles  on  the  second  and  third  thoracic  seg- 
ments are  larger  than  the  others,  and  are  coral  red. 
The  other  dorsal  tubercles  are  yellow,  excepting 
those  of  the  first  thoracic  and  last  abdominal  seg- 
ments, which,  with  the  lateral  tubercles,  are  blue  ;  all 
are  armed   with    black   bristles.     The   cocoon  (Fig. 


'Zri^.'zr 


"-.r'^^'l 


Fig.  i6o. — Cocoon  of  the  Cecropia-moth. 

1 60)  is  securely  fastened  to  a  branch  of  the  food 
plant,  where  it  is  easily  found  during  the  winter 
months. 

The  Ceanothus  Silkworm,  Samia  califomica. — 
The  Cecropia-moth  is  not  found  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
but  its  place  is  taken  by  a  closely  allied  species  simi- 
lar in  size  and  markings,  but  differing  in  having  the 
ground  color  of  the  wings  reddish  or  dusky  brown. 
The  larva  feeds  on  Ceanothus :  the  cocoon  resembles 


■  "^'W^-'-s^r^^ 


Plate  X. 


Plate  X.— SOME    FOREST    MOTHS. 

FIGURE 

1.  The   Imperial-moth,  Basilona  ifuperialis.     The  larva  feeds  on 

hickory,  butternut,  and  other  forest  trees.     See  page  197. 

2.  The  lo-moth,  AvJomeris  to.     Male.     See   page  1S9  for  figure 

of  the  female. 

3.  The   Rosy  Dryocampa,    Dryocampa  rttbicunda.     The  larva  is 

the  green-striped  maple-worm. 

4.  The  Crinkled  Flannel-moth,  Megalopyge  crispata.     The  larva 

feeds  on  oak,  elm,  apple,  and  raspberry. 


xaa^oi:  mi 


T'lnhD  aril       4. 


FOREST   LIFE. 


197 


that  of  the  Cecropia-moth,  except  that  the  ends  are 
usually  free  from  the  branch  to  which  the  cocoon  is 
attached. 

THE    ROYAL-MOTHS. 

The  royal-moths  constitute  a  family,  the  ClTHE- 
RONIID.^  (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-dse),  which  is  closely  alHed  to 
the  giant  silkworms.  The  species  are  of  medium  or 
large  size,  and  some  of  them  are  among  the  more 
common  forest  insects.  The  larvse  are  armed  with 
horns  or  spines,  of  which  those  on  the  second  thorac- 
ic segment,  and  sometimes  also  those  on  the  third, 
are  long  and  curved.  These  caterpillars  eat  the 
leaves  of  forest  trees,  and  go  into  the  ground  to 
transform,  which  they  do  without  making  cocoons. 
The  rings  of  the  pupa  bear  little  notched  ridges,  the 
teeth  of  which,  together  with  some  strong  prickles  at 
the  hind  end  of  the  body,  assist  it  in  forcing  its  way 
upward  out  of  the  earth.  The  following  are  the 
more  common  species: — 


Fig.  161,— Larva  of  the  imperial-moth. 


The  I MPERI AL-MOTH,  Basilona  imperialis  {Bas-Uo'na 
im-pe-ri-a' lis). — The  full-grown  larva  of   this   species 


iqS 


INSECT    LIFE. 


k 


.--  > 


'K  ' 


^/■<"} 


^\%i 


FOREST    LIFE. 


199 


(Fig.  161)  measures  from  three  to  four  inches  in 
length.  It  feeds  on  hickory,  butternut,  and  other 
forest  trees.  The  moth  expands  from  four  to  five 
inches  and  a  half.  It  is  sulphur-yellow,  banded  and 
speckled  with  purplish  brown. 

The  Regal-moth,  Cither onia  regalis  (CitJi-e-ro' ni-a 
re-ga'lis). — This  is  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  of 
the  royal-moths  (Fig.  162).  The  fore  wings  are  olive- 
colored,  spotted  with  yellow,  and  with  a  more  or  less 
distinctly  marked  band  outside  the  middle  olive. 
The  wings  expand  from  four  to  six  inches. 

The  larva,  when  full  grown,  measures  from  four 
to  five  inches  in  length,  and  can  be  recognized  by  the 
very  long,  spiny  horns  with  which  it  is  armed. 
Those  of  the  mesothorax  and  metathorax  are  much 
longer  than  the  others ;  of  these,  there  are  four  on 
each  segment ;  the  intermediate  ones  measure  about 
three  fifths  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  larva  feeds  on 
hickory,  walnut,  and  various  other  trees. 

The  Anisota  Oak-worms. — There  are  several 
smaller  royal-moths  belonging  to  the  genus  Anisota 
{Aii'i-so'td),  the  larvae 
of  which  feed  on  oak. 


Fig.  i6-t,.—A}iisota,  male. 


Fig.  164. — A?tisota^  female. 


These  larvae  are  more  or  less  striped  and  armed  with 
spines.     In  the  adult  state  the  sexes  differ  greatly  in 


200  INSECT    LIFE. 

appearance.     The  male  and  female  of  a  common  spe- 
cies are  represented  by  Figs.  163  and  164. 

THE    LARGER    NEST-BUILDING    CATERPILLARS. 

Many  species  of  caterpillars  make  nests  within 
which  they  live.  The  greater  number  of  these  be- 
long to  the  group  described  below  as  leaf-rollers — a 
group  composed  chiefly  of  very  small  species.  A 
few  of  the  larger  caterpillars  also  make  nests.  The 
more  common  species  of  these  are  the  following : — 

The  Tent-caterpillars. — See  page  172  for  a 
reference  to  these. 

The  Fall  Web-worm,  Hyphantria  ainea  {Hy^ 
phan'tri-a  cu'nc-d). — A  very  common  sight  in  autumn 
in  all  parts  of  our  country  is  large,  ugly  webs  inclos- 
inof  branches  of  fruit  or  forest  trees.  These  webs  are 
especially  common  on  apple  and  on  ash.  Each  web 
is  the  residence  of  a  colony  of  larvae  which  have 
hatched  from  a  cluster  of  eggs  laid  on  a  leaf  by  a 
snow-white  moth.  There  is  a  variety  of  this  moth  in 
which  the  fore  wings  are  thickly  studded  with  dark 
brown  specks.  Every  gradation  exists  between  this 
form  and  those  that  are  spotless.  The  species  win- 
ters in  the  pupa  state,  and  the  moths  emerge  during 
May  or  June.  The  webs  made  by  this  insect  should 
not  be  confounded  with  those  made  by  the  apple-tree 
tent-caterpillar.  The  webs  of  the  fall  web-worm 
are  made  in  the  autumn,  and  are  much  lighter  in 
texture,  being  extended  over  all  of  the  leaves  fed 
upon  by  the  colony. 

The  Scallop-SHELL  Moth,  Calocalpa  undidata 
[Cal-o-cal'pa  ii7t-d2i-la'td). — This  is  a  pretty  moth,  with 
its  yellow   wings  crossed  by  so  many  fine,  zigzag, 


FOREST    LIFE. 


20 1 


dark  brown  lines  that  it  is  hard  to  tell  which  of  the 
two  is  the  ground  color  (Fig.  165).  It  lays  its  eggs 
in  a  cluster  on  a  leaf  near  the  tip  of  a  twig  of  cher- 
ry, usually  wild  cherry. 
The  larvae  make  a  snug 
nest  by  fastening  together 
the  leaves  at  the  end  of 
the  twigi  and  within  this 
nest  (Fig.  166)  they  live, 
adding  new  leaves  to  the 
outside  as  more  food  is 
needed.  The  leaves  die 
and  become  brown,  and 
thus  render  the  nest  con- 
spicuous. The  larvae  are 
black  above,  with  four 
white  stripes,  and  flesh- 
colored  below.  When  full 
grown  they  descend  to 
the  ground  to  transform, 
and  pass  the  winter  in  the 
pupa  state. 


Fig.  165.  —The  scallop- 
shell  moth. 


Fig.  166. — Nest  of  larvae  of  the  scallop- 
shell  moth,  and  eggs  of  moth  enlarged. 


The  Mocha-stone  Moths,  Ichthyiira  [Ich-thy- 
u'rd). — There  often  occur  on  poplar  and  willow  nests 
of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  167.     Each  of  these  nests 


202 


INSECT    LIFE. 


contains  a  colony  of  larvae — the  young  of  a  moth  of 
the  genus  Ichthyura,  of  which  there  are  several  spe- 


FiG.  167.— Eggs,  larva,  and  nest  of  a  mocha-stone  moth. 


cies  in  this  country.  The  moths  are  brownish  gray, 
w^ith  the  fore  wings  crossed  by  irregular  whitish 
lines  (Fig.  168).  It  was  these  peculiar  markings,  re- 
sembling somewhat  those  of  a  moss-agate,  that  sug- 
gested the  popular  name  given  above.  In  the  case 
of  our  most  common  species,  the 
nests  are  found  in  midsummer 
or  later.  The  larvse,  when 
young,  feed  within  the  nest,  but 
when  they  become  large  they 
leave  the  nest  at  night  to  feed  on 
other  leaves.  The  cocoons  are 
made  under  leaves  or  other  rub- 
bish on  the  ground,  and  the  adults  do  not  emerge 
until  the  following  summer.  These  insects  can  be 
easily  bred  by  placing  a  nest  in  a  breeding  cage  and 
putting  fresh  branches  of  the  food  plant  next  to  the 
nest  as  often  as  necessary. 

The  Silver-spotted  Skipper,  Epargyreus  tityrus 
{Ep-ar-gy' re-US  tit'y-rus). — If  one  will  lie  on  his  back  in 


Fig.  168. — A  mocha-stone 
moth. 


FOREST   LIFE. 


203 


late  July  or  in  September  under  the  low  hanging 
branches  of  some  locust  tree,  and  look  so  that  the 
leaves  are  clearly  outlined  against  the  sky,  he  may 
see  that  the  fernlike  regularity  of  some  of  the  com- 
pound leaves  is  interrupted,  several  of  the  leaflets 
being  fastened  together  with  silk  so  as  to  make  a  little 
tube,  which  serves  as  a  home  for  the  builder.  These 
tubes  are  made  in  various  ways ;  sometimes  the  tips 
of  several  pairs  of  opposite  leaflets  are  brought  to- 
gether below  the  leaf-stalk  and  fastened  with  silk, 
and  the  overlapping  edges  of  the  leaflets  on  each  side 
fastened  in  the  same  way  ;  thus  is  formed  a  roomy 
chamber,  within  which  the  architect  lives. 

The  remains  of  such  a  nest  is  represented  in  Fig. 
169.     When  this   specimen    was   collected    late    one 


Fig.  169.— Nest  of  a  larva  of  the  silver-spotted  skipper. 

afternoon,  the  leaflets  were  all  present  on  the  stem ; 
but  when  I  went  to  photograph  it  the  next  morning 
I  found  that  the  caterpillar  during  the  night,  having 
nothing  else  to  feed  upon,  had  eaten  the  leaflets  at 
both  ends  of  the  nest. 

These  nests  are  made  by  the  larva  of  the  silver- 
spotted  skipper,  a  butterflylike  insect  which  flies  from 


204 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Larva  of  the  silver-spotted  skipper. 


flower  to  flower  with  a  skipping  motion  (see  page  8i 
for  the  characteristics  of  the  skippers).  This  skipper 
is  dark  chocolate-brown,  with  a  row  of  yellow  spots 
extending  across  the   fore  wing,  and   with  a  large, 

silvery  white  spot 
on  the  lower  side  of 
the  hind  wing.  The 
larva  is  a  curious 
creature,  with  a 
large  head,  a  slen- 
der neck,  and  a  spindle-shaped  body  (Fig.  170),  and 
will  serve  as  a  type  of  the  family  Hesperiid^  (Hes- 
pe-ri'i-dse),  which  includes  our  common  skippers ; 
for  the  larvas  of  this  family  can  be  recognized  by 
this  peculiar  form,  and  most  of  them  live  concealed 
in  a  folded  leaf  or  in  a  nest  made  of  several  leaves 
fastened  together. 

The  Bag-worms,  family  Psychid^  (Psy'chi-dse). 
— The  bag-worms  are  those  caterpillars 
that  have  the  curious  habit  of  building 
each  for  itself  a  silken  sac  covered  with 
little  twigs  within  which  it  lives  (Figs. 
171  and  172).  When  the  caterpillar 
washes  to  move  from  one  place  to  an- 
other, it  pushes  forth  the  front  end  of 
its  body  and  creeps  along,  carrying  its 
house  with  it.  It  is  said  that  the  spe- 
cies that  inhabit  Ceylon  are  believed  by 
the  natives  to  be  composed  of  individ- 
uals who,  in  a  previous  incarnation, 
were  human  beings  and  stole  kindling- 
wood,  and  who  now  atone  for  the  theft  by  repeating 
the  act  as  an  insect. 


'fJ  -AA:. 


fi^sO     .1 


f 


f .  ^me^ 


.\\'3-v  ri\v>'i<j^'; 


Plate  XL— UNDEPv-WING    MOTHS. 


The  under-wing  moths  are  found  resting  on  the  trunks  of  forest 
trees  ;  when  at  rest,  the  bright-colored  hind  wings  are  covered  by 
the  fore  wings,  and  the  insects  are  well-protected  by  their  resem- 
blance in  color  to  the  bark  of  the  trees. 

FIGUKE 

1.  Catocala  concumbens . 

2.  Catocala  gracilis. 

3.  Catocala  arnica. 

4.  Catocala  iilti'onia. 

5.  Catocala  relicta. 


Plate  XI. 


FOREST    LIFE. 


205 


When  a  bag-worm  is  fully  grown,  it  fastens  its 
sac  to  a  twig  and  changes  to  a  pupa  within  it.  And 
here  the  females  remain  until  death,  leaving  their 
eggs  within  their  sacs.  These  females  are  grublike 
creatures  without  wings.  But  the  male  pupa  works 
his  way  out  from  the  lower  end  of  his  sac,  and 
changes  to  a  winged  moth.     Fig.  172  represents  the 


Fig.  172.  Fig.  173.  Fig.  174. 

sac  of  a  male  with  the  empty  pupa  skin  projecting 
from  the  lower  end,  and  Fig.  173  the  fully  developed 
male.  These  figures  are  of  one  of  our  smaller  species. 
Fig.  174  represents  the  male  of  one  of  the  larger 
species. 

OTHER    LARGER    LEAF-EATING    CATERPILLARS. 

In  addition  to  the  species  mentioned  above,  there 
are  very  many  of  the  larger  caterpillars  that  infest 
the  foliage  of  forest  trees.  Any  one  of  these  may  be 
taken  as  a  subject  for  study,  and  the  work  carried  on 
in  the  manner  outlined  for  the  study  of  similar  orchard 
insects.     See  page  172. 

THE    SMALLER    LEAF-EATING    CATERPILLARS. 

There  is  an  immense  number  of  small  caterpillars 
that  infest  the  foliage  of  forest  trees.  Of  this  number, 
the  majority  of  those  that  would  attract  the  attention 


206 


INSECT   LIFE. 


of  the  young  student  represent  two  groups — the  leaf- 
rollers  and  the  leaf-miners. 

THE    LEAF-ROLLERS. 

If  the  pupil  will  examine  the  leaves  of  almost  any 
forest  tree  during  the  summer  or  autumn 
he  will  find  that  some  of  them  are  rolled 
in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  nest,  within 
which  one  or  more  larvse  live  or  have 
lived.  These  nests  vary  greatly  in  form  ; 
sometimes  a  single  leaf,  or  even  only  a 
part  of  a  leaf,  is  rolled  ;  in  other  cases 
the  nest  is  formed  by  fastening  together 
several  leaves.  In  most  cases  the  build- 
ing of  the  nest  is  the  work  of  a  single 
larva,  but  in  very  many  instances  several 
larvae  work  together  to  build  "a  common 
nest.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that 
each  of  the  leaf-rolling  species  builds  a 
nest  of  a  particular  form,  and  each  of 
these  species  infests  a  certain  kind  or 
kinds  of  trees.  Hence,  when  a  student 
has  carefully  studied  the  life  history  of  a 
leaf-roller,  he  will  be  able,  as  a  rule,  to 
recognize  the  work  of  this  species  by  a 
study  of  the  nest  alone. 

In  making  its  nest  the  leaf-roller  fast- 
ens the  folds  of  its  nest  in  the  desired 
position  by  means  of  little  bands  of  silk. 
Fig  I7S        Several  of  these  bands  are  shown  in  Fig. 
175,  and  in  Fig.  176  are  represented  sev- 
eral types  of  nests  made  of  rolled  leaves. 

The  breeding   of   leaf-rollers   is   somewhat  more 


FOREST   LIFE. 


207 


difficult  than  the  breeding  of  those  leaf-eating  species 
that  do  not  make  nests ;  the  changing  of  the  latter 
from  a  wilted  branch  to  a  fresh  one  is  accomplished 
without  difficulty,  but  a  similar  process  in  the  case  of 
a  leaf-roller  implies  the 
building  of  a  new  nest 
by  the  insect.  For  this 
reason  it  is  best  to  leave 
the  nests  on  the  trees 
till  the  larvae  are  nearly 
full-grown,  and  then  to 
cut  the  branch  bearing 
the  nest  and  place  it  in 
water  or  damp  sand  in 
a  breeding  cage.  This 
implies  the  keeping  of  a 
close  watch  of  the  in- 
sects while  on  the  trees, 
lest  they  mature  and  es- 
cape. It  is  well,  when 
comparatively  few  spec- 
imens are  found,  to  in- 
close the  nest  w^hile  it 
is  left  on  the  tree  in  a 

bag  of  Swiss  muslin.  Some  leaf-miners  pass  the  pupa 
state  wdthin  their  nest ;  but  as  others  leave  the  nests 
and  enter  the  ground  to  transform,  it  is  best  to  have 
a  layer  of  earth  in  the  breeding  cage. 

The  greater  number  of  the  leaf-rolling  caterpillars 
belong  to  the  superfamily  TORTRICINA  (Tor-tri-ci'na), 
or  Tortricids  {Tor'tri-cids)\  but  there  are  members  of 
several  other  families  of  moths  that  have  similar 
habits. 


Fig.  176. 


2o8  INSECT   LIFE. 

THE    LEAF-MINERS. 

There  are  many  leaf-eating  caterpillars  that  are  so 
minute  that  they  can  live  within  the  substance  of  a 
leaf,  the  space  between  the  two  skins  of  the  leaf  being 
sufficiently  large  to  afford  them  room  for  a  dwelling 
and  pasture.  The  larvae  that  live  in  this  way  are 
called  leaf-miners. 

During  the  late  summer  and  autumn  there  can  be 
found  on  almost  any  shrub  or  tree  leaves  that  are 
more  or  less  discolored  by  white  or  grayish  blotches 
or  by  long  twisted  lines  that  reveal  the  abiding-places 
of  leaf-miners.  Surely  Mr.  Lowell  must  have  had 
these  in  mind  when  he  wrote : — 

And  there's  never  a  blade  nor  a  leaf  too  mean 
To  be  some  happy  creature's  palace. 

Not  only  are  very  many  kinds  of  plants  infested 
hy  these  larvse,  but  the  mines  in  the  leaves  differ 
greatly  in  form  and  in  their  position  in  the  leaf. 
These  differences  in  food  plant  and  in  the  shape  and 
position  of  the  mines  do  not  indicate  that  these  larvas 
are  inconstant  in  their  habits.  In  fact,  the  opposite 
is  the  case.  Each  species  of  leaf-miner  infests  a  par- 
ticular species  of  plant,  or,  at  the  most,  several  closely 
allied  plants.  And  each  species  makes  a  mine  of 
definite  shape,  although  some  species  exhibit  different 
habits  in  the  different  stages  of  their  growth.  So 
constant  are  these  creatures  in  their  habits  that  in 
most  cases  an  expert  can  determine  the  species  of 
leaf-miner  that  made  a  mine  by  merely  examining 
the  infested  leaf. 

The  various  kinds  of  mines  can  be  classed  under  a 


FOREST    LIFE. 


209 


fV*\?" 


few  distinct  types.  The  long,  narrow,  and  more  or 
less  winding-  mines  are  described  as  linear  mines. 
Some  of  these  are  very  narrow  at  their  beginning 
and  gradually  enlarge,  resembling  in  outline  a  ser- 
pent ;  frequently  the  larger  end  is  terminated  by  a 
blotchlike  enlargement,  suggesting  a  head.  Such 
mines  are  termed  serpentine  mines.  The  leaves  of  the 
wild  columbine  are  often  marked  by  serpentine  mines 
(Fig.  177).  Other  mines  that  start  from  a  narrow  be- 
ginning enlarge  more  _ 
rapidly  and  extend  in 
a  more  or  less  regu- 
lar curve ;  these  are 
trumpet  mines. 

The  breeding  of 
leaf  -  miners  is  at- 
tended by  the  same 
difficulties  as  the 
breeding  of  leaf-roll- 
ers mentioned  above. 
But  with  a  little  care 
mines  can  be  selected 
in  which  the  larvas 
are  so  nearly  full  grown  that  they  will  complete  their 
transformations  if  the  branch  bearing  the  mined 
leaves  be  placed  in  water  or  damp  sand  in  a  breeding 
cage.  When  the  adult  insects  are  reared,  great  care 
will  be  necessary  in  mounting  them  on  account  of 
their  minute  size.  See  page  298  for  directions  for 
mounting  small  insects. 

A  very  instructive  collection  can  be  made  by 
pressing  mined  leaves,  and  mounting  them  as  botan- 
ical specimens  are  mounted.     Each  specimen  should 


Fig.  177. — Leaf  with  serpentine  mines. 


2IO 


INSECT    LIFE. 


be  carefully  labeled  with  the  name  of  the   plant  and 
the  date  of  collecting  the  specimen. 

There  are  certain  flies  and  beetles  the  larvse  of 
which  are  leaf-miners,  but  the  great  majority  of  the 
insects  that  live  in  this  way  are  larvse  of  minute 
moths,  which  belong  to  the  superfamily  Tineina 
(Tin-e-i'na) ;  these  are  commonly  called  Tineids  (Tin' - 
e-ids). 

GALLS    AND    GALL-INSECTS. 

There  occur  on  the  leaves,  stems,  or  roots  of  very 
many  species  of  plants  abnormal  growths  caused  by 
insects;  these  are  termed  galls.  Among  the  more 
familiar  examples  of  galls  are  the  various  kinds  of 


Fig,  178.— An  oak  leaf  bearing  oak-apples.      The  larger  one  is  represented 

cut  open. 

oak-apples,  of  which  a  common  one  is  illustrated  by 
Fig.  178. 


FOREST   LIFE. 


211 


In  the  center  of  an  oak  apple  there  is  a  little  cell, 
within  which  a  larva  lives  till  it  gets  its  growth. 
This  larva  is  hatched  from  an  egg  laid  in  the  tissue 
of  the  leaf  by  a  small,  four-winged  insect,  called  a 
gall-fly.  When  the  young  larva  began  to  feed  on 
the  leaf,  the  leaf  began  to  grow  around  it  in  a  won- 
derful way  ;  so  that  very  soon  the  larva  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  large  ball  of  plant  growth,  which 
served  as  a  home  and  furnished  food  for  the  larva. 

Why  the  plant  grew  in  this  way  no  one  knows.  As 
a  rule,  when  a  leaf-eating  larva  feeds  on  the  tissue  of 
a  leaf  there  is  no  extra  growth  ;  but  when  the  larva 
of  a  gall-fly  begins  to  feed,  an  abnormal  growth  of 
the  plant  commences.  More  than  this,  this  growth 
is  of  a  definite  form  which  is  different  for  the  differ- 
ent species  of  gall-flies.  Hence,  when  an  entomolo- 
gist who  has  studied  these  insects  sees  a  familiar  gall, 
he  knows  at  once  what  species  of  insect  produced  it. 
It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  larva  excretes  a 
poison,  which  acts  on  the  plant  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  this  remarkable  result.  There  are  certain 
other  gall-producing  insects  which  belong  to  a  differ- 
ent order  than  those  that  produce  the  oak-apples, 
the  galls  of  which  begin  to  grow  before  the  larvae 
hatch.  In  these  cases  it  is  supposed  that  a  drop  of 
poison  is  deposited  with  the  egg  by  the  parent  insect. 

Many  species  of  gall-flies  undergo  their  transfor- 
mations within  their  galls,  while  in  other  species  the 
full-grown  larva  leaves  the  gall  and  enters  the  ground 
to  transform. 

The  gall  represented  by  Fig.  178  is  produced  by 
a  single  larva.  But  certain  species  of  gall-flies  lay 
many  eggs  together,  and  there  results  the  growth  of 
15 


212  INSECT   LIFE. 

a  compound  gall  containing  many  cells,  in  each  of 
which  a  larva  gets  its  growth.  The  moss3^-rose-gall, 
which  occurs  on  the  stem  of  the  sweetbrier  (Fig. 
179),  is  a  familiar  example  of  a  many-celled  gall. 


Fig.  179. — The  mossy-rose-gall. 

In  the  two  kinds  of  galls  figured  here  the  larva 
lives  in  a  closed  cell  which  has  no  opening  until  one 
is  made  by  the  full-grown  larva  for  his  escape.  Most 
galls  of  this  kind  are  made  by  insects  of  the  family 
Cynipid^  (Cy-nip'i-das)  of  the  order  Hymenoptera. 
To  this  family  the  name  gall-flies  is  restricted,  al- 
though many  other  insects  produce  galls.  Fig.  180 
represents  an  adult  gall-fly  greatly  enlarged. 

The  largest  galls  that  occur  on  forest  trees  are 
produced  by  gall-flies,  but  there  are  other  kinds  of 


FOREST   LIFE. 


213 


Fig.  180.— a  gall-fly. 


galls  which  are  much  more  abundant  than  those  of  the 

gall-flies  ;  these  are  the  galls  made  by  plant-lice  and 

by    mites.      The    galls 

produced  by  plant-lice, 

and  also  those  produced 

by  mites,  differ  from  the 

galls  of  the  gall-flies  in 

that    each   gall   has    an 

open  mouth. 

The  conical  galls 
which  are  so  common 
on  the  leaves  of  witch- 
hazel  (Fig.  181)  are  good 
illustrations  of  this  type 

of  gall.  These  galls  project  from  the  upper  side  of 
the  leaf,  but  each  has  an  opening  on  the  lower  side  of 
the  leaf.  The  plant-louse  that  produces  this  gall  is 
an  agamic  female  (see  page  177);  when  this  female 
is  mature,  she  gives  birth  to  numerous  young,  which 

escape  from  the  mouth 
of  the  gall,  scatter  over 
the  leaf,  and  each  in 
turn  produces  a  gall. 

In  most  localities 
there  are  so  many  kinds 
of  galls  that  it  would  be 
unwise  for  a  student  to 
attempt  to  study  them 
all.  A  better  plan  is  to 
select  some  one  species 
or  genus  of  trees  and  to  study  the  galls  made  on 
these  trees  by  one  family  of  insects.  Thus,  if  oaks 
occur  in  the  locality,  a  good  subject  is  the  oak  galls 


Fig.  181. 


214  INSECT    LIFE. 

made  by  gall-flies  (family  Cynipidce).  The  student 
should  learn  the  different  species  of  oaks  that  grow- 
in  the  locality,  and  should  always  label  the  galls  col- 
lected with  the  name  of  the  particular  species  of  oak 
on  which  they  were  found.  The  particular  time  of 
the  year  in  which  the  galls  are  developed  should  be 
determined,  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to  breed 
the  adult  gall-flies.  Many  species  of  gall-flies  under- 
go their  transformations  within  their  galls,  while  in 
other  species  the  full-growm  larva  leaves  the  gall  and 
enters  the  earth  to  transform.  In  the  former  case 
the  adults  are  most  surely  obtained  by  leaving  the 
galls  on  the  trees  and  inclosing  each  in  a  little  bag  of 
Swiss  muslin.  And  in  the  latter  case  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  collect  the  galls  before  they  are  mature, 
else  they  will  whither  and  the  contained  larvse  perish. 
In  breeding  species  that  pass  the  winter  in  their  galls, 
the  galls  should  be  left  out  of  doors  till  spring  to  pre- 
vent the  galls  becoming  too  dry  and  hard.* 

In  the  study  of  galls  made  by  plant-lice,  select 
some  common  species  of  gall,  so  that  specimens  can 
be  cut  open  and  examined  at  frequent  intervals. 
Note  carefully  by  this  method  what  goes  on  within 
the  galls,  and  observe  the  spreading  of  the  young 
from  the  galls  and  the  formation  of  new  galls. 

*  For  a  thorough  study  of  this  subject,  see  the  following  :— Alternating 
Generations  :  A  Biological  Study  of  Oak  Galls  and  Gall-flies.  By  Her- 
mann Adler.  Translated  and  edited  by  Charles  R.  Straton.  Published 
by  Macmillan  &  Co.     Price,  $3.25. 


4  5 

Plate  XII.  LONG-HORNED   BEETLES. 


FOREST    LIFE. 


215 


INSECTS    INFESTING    THE    TRUNKS    AND    BRANCHES    OF 
TREES. 

The  insects  that  live  within  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees  are  called  borers.  There  are  very 
many  species  of  these,  and  representatives  of  several 
of  the  orders  of  insects,  as  well  as  of  many  different 
families,  are  found  among  them. 

In  the  study  of  these  insects  larvse  should  be  col- 
lected from  the  infested  trees  from  time  to  time  and 
preserved  in  alcohol ;  when  the  insects  have  trans- 
formed to  pupse,  these  can  be  transferred  to  breeding 
cages  and  the  adults  reared. 

If  the  infested  wood  is  dead,  a  piece  of  it  contain- 
ing the  borers  can  be  placed  in  a  breeding  cage  at 
once,  as  soon  as  the  larvse  are  found,  and  the  insects 
bred  in  this  way. 

Among  the  more  common  borers  are  the  larvse  of 
the  long-horned  beetles,  which  constitute  the 
family  Cerambycid^  (Cer-am-byc'i-dae).  The 
larvse  are  footless  grubs  of  the  form  shown 
in  Fig.  182.  The  pupa  state  in  some  species 
is  passed  within  the  burrows  made  by  the 
larvse  ;  in  other  species  the  larva  makes  a 
little  ring  of  chips  around  itself  between  the 
bark  and  the  wood,  and  changes  to  a  pupa 
within  this  rude  cocoon.  Several  examples  of  ^^^"  '^^" 
beetles  of  this  family  are  represented  on   Plate  XII.^ 

*  Explanation  to  Plate  XII.— i.  The  ribbed  pine-borer,  Rha- 
ginju  lineatttm  ;  2.  The  two-spotted  Oberea,  Oberea  bimactilata,  a  borer 
in  blackberry  and  raspberry  ;  3.  The  sawyer,  Monohannis  confusor, 
a  borer  in  pine  and  fir  ;  4.  The  broad-necked  Prionus,  Frionus  lati- 
collis,  a  borer  in  the  roots  of  grape,  apple,  poplar,  and  other  trees  ; 
5.  The  beautiful  maple-borer,  Plaginotus  speciosus. 


2l6 


INSECT    LIFE. 


If  the  bark  be  pulled  from  dead  branches  or  trunks 
of  trees,  the  inner  layer  and  the  sap-wood  will  be 
found  to  be  ornamented  in  many  cases  with  burrows 
of  more  or  less  regular  form.  These  smoothly  cut 
figures  are  the  mines  of  the  engraver-beetles.  Many 
kinds  of  these  engravings  can  be  found,  each  charac- 


FiG.  183. 


teristic  of  a  particular  kind  of  engraver-beetle.  A 
common  pattern  is  shown  in  Fig.  183.  The  beetles 
that  do  this  work  are  mostly  of  cylindrical  form  and 

of  small  size  ;  many  spe- 
cies are  almost  micro- 
scopic, and  the  larger 
ones  rarely  exceed  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in 
length.  They  are  usu- 
ally brown,  sometimes 
black,  and  with  many 
the  hind  end  of  the  body 
is  very  blunt,  as  if  cut 
Fig.  184.-A  horn-tail.  ^^^      j^^^^  beetles  be- 

long to  the  family  ScOLYTiD^  (Sco-lyt'i-dce). 

The  insects  known  as  horn-tails  are  often  found 


FOREST    LIFE. 


217 


on  the  trunks  of  forest  trees,  in  the  wood  of  which  the 
larvae  bore.  Fig.  184  represents  an  adult  horn-tail. 
In  this  family  the  female  has  a  long  ovipositor,  with 
which  she  makes  slender  holes  in  the  trunks  of  trees 
for  the  reception  of  her  eggs.  The  horn-tails  belong 
to  the  family  Siricid.f:  (Si-ric^i-dse)  of  the  order  Hy- 
menoptera. 

Among  the  more  striking  in  appearance  of  the 
insects  found  on  forest  trees  are  certain  ichneumon- 
flies  that  are  parasitic  on  the  larvse  of  the  horn-tails. 
These  ichneumon- 
flies  bore  holes  into 
the  trees  infested 
by  the  horn-tails, 
and  lay  their  eggs 
into  the  burrows 
of  the  latter.  The 
larvse  of  the  ichneu- 
mon-flies fasten 
themselves  to  the 
horn-tail  larvae,  and 
destroy  them  by 
sucking  their  blood. 
Fig.  185  represents 
one  of  these  ichneu- 
mon-flies     in      the    Fig.  185.— The  hom-tail  parasite  laying  an  egg. 

act  of  laying  an  egg.  These  insects  belong  to  the 
family  Ichneumonid^  (Ich-neu-mon'i-d^)  of  the  or- 
der Hymenoptera. 


2l8 


INSECT   LIFE. 


MISCELLANEOUS    FOREST    INSECTS. 

The  Cicadas. 

The  shrill  Cicadas,  people  of  the  pine 

Making  their  summer  lives  one  ceaseless  song. — Byron. 

Our  more  common  species  of  cicadas  are  large 
insects,  but  as  the  nymphs  live  in  the  ground,  and 
the  adults  spend  most  of  their  time  high  up  among 
the  branches  of  trees,  they  would  attract  compara- 
tively little  attention  were  it  not  for  their  songs.  The 
student  of  forest  insects,  how- 
ever, is  soon  made  aware  of  the 
presence  of  cicadas  if  he  collects 
at  midday  during  the  period  of 
flight  of  these  insects.  Their  song 
is  a  high,  sharp  trill,  that  far  ex- 
ceeds in  volume  the  song  of  any 
other  insect  that  sings  in  the  day- 
time. 

One  of  our  most  common  spe- 
cies   is    the     dog-day-harvest-fly, 
Cicada    tibicen    {Ci-ca' da    ti-bi'ce^i). 
This  insect  (Fig.  i86)  is  black  and 
green  in  color  and  more  or  less 
powdered    beneath.      It  is  found 
every  3^ear  in  the  localities  in  which    it   occurs,  al- 
though it  requires  two  years  for  an  individual  to  at- 
tain its  development. 

The  species  of  cicada  that  attracts  most  attention 
is  the  periodical  cicada.  Cicada  scptendeciin  (C.  scp- 
ten' de-cint).  This  species  is  often  called  the  seventeen- 
year  locust ;  but  as  it  is  not  a  locust,  this  name  should 


Fig.  i86. 


FOREST   LIFE. 


219 


not  be  used.  This  species  is  not  quite  so  large  as 
the  dog-day-harvest-fly,  and  is  black  and  brick-red  in 
color.  It  is  remarkable  on  account  of  the  slowness 
of  its  growth,  the  nymphs  requiring  seventeen  years 
for  their  development  in  the  North  and  thirteen  years 
in  the  South.  As  all  of  the  members  of  one  genera- 
tion reach  the  adult  state  at  about  the  same  time,  the 
species  appears  in  immense  swarms  which  attract 
general  attention.  In  many  localities  several  broods 
coexist ;  this  explains  the  fact  that  in  such  places 
these  insects  appear  several  times  during  a  single 
period  of  seventeen  or  thirteen  years.  The  adult 
female  lays  her  egg  in  slits  which  she  makes  in  the 
twigs  of  trees.  The  eggs  hatch  in  about  six  weeks. 
The  young  nymphs  drop  to  the  ground  and  bury 
themselves  in  the  earth,  where  they  live  by  sucking 
the  juices  from  the  roots  of  trees.  When  full-grown, 
seventeen  or  thirteen  years  later,  they  crawl  up  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground  and  undergo  their  last 
molt  on  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  last  nymph  skin  is 
left  clinging  to  the  bark  where  the  transformation 
occurred,  and  soon  afterward  the  songs  of  the  insects 
are  heard. 

The  student  should  collect  nymph  skins,  adults, 
and  twigs  in  which  the  eggs  have  been  laid. 

The  cicadas  constitute  the  family  CiCADiD.^  (Ci- 
cad'i-das)  of  the  order  Hemiptera. 

THE    TREE-HOPPERS,    OR    BROWNIE-BUGS. 

The  tree-hoppers  are  so  called  because  they  live 
upon  trees,  bushes,  and  vines,  and  can  jump  with 
great  agility.  Many  of  them  are  grotesque  in  ap- 
pearance, having  great  humps  on  their  backs;  and  in 


220 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Fig.  i88. 


all  the  prothorax  is  prolonged  backward  like  a  roof 
over  the  bod}^  (Fig-  iS?)-  -^  common  species  bears  a 
pair  of  hornlike  projections,  which  have  giv- 
en it  the  name  of  the  buffalo 
tree-hopper  (Fig.  i88);  and  an- 
other common  species  (Fig. 
189)  excretes  honey-dew,  and 
is  attended  by  ants.  If  the 
young  entomologist  wishes  to  laugh,  let  him  look  at 
the  faces  of  tree-hoppers  through  a  lens.  A  front 
view  of  several  of  these  insect-Brownies  is 
given  in  Fig.  190.  Their  eyes  have  a  keen, 
droll  look,  and  the  line  that  separates  the 
head  from  the  prothorax  gives  them  the 
appearance  of  wearing  glasses.  In  some  cases  the 
prothorax  is  elevated  above  the  head,  so  that  it  looks 


Fig.  189. 


Fig.  190. — Tree-hoppers  or  Brownie-bugs. 


like  a  peaked  nightcap  ;  in  others  it  is  shaped  like  a 
Tam-o'-shanter  ;  while  others  have  prominent  horns. 
The  tree-hoppers  feed  upon  plants,  but  they  sel- 
dom appear  in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  much  damage. 
They  constitute  the  family  MembraciD/E  (Mem-brac'- 
i-dse)  of  the  order  Hemiptera. 


Plate  XIII.  ROADSIDE   BUTTERFLIES. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


*0R  the  careful  collector  of  insects,  a 
country  roadside  is  always  a  fruitful 
field.  Here  live  all  the  insects  de- 
scribed in  the  preceding-  chapters,  for 
there  are  roadside  ponds,  brooks,  or- 
chards, and  forests,  as  well  as  meadows. 
But  this  chapter  is  devoted  to  a  few 
of  the  more  prominent  insects  that  live  in  grassy 
places,  or  on  common  roadside  weeds  and  shrubs,  or 
that  lurk  under  stones,  or  that  mine  in  roadside 
paths  and  cliffs. 

As  in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  principal  object 
here  is  to  point  out  subjects  for  study.  The  students 
that  have  carefully  carried  out  the  work  indicated  in 


222  INSECT   LIFE. 

earlier  chapters  will  not  need,  in  most  cases,  detailed 
directions  for  the  study  of  these  subjects ;  in  a  few 
cases  special  directions  are  given. 

Balloons  from  the  thistles 
Tell  summer's  disasters, 
The  butterflies  yellow, 
^  As  caught  in  an  eddy 

Of  air's  silent  ocean. 
Sink,  waver,  and  steady 
O'er  goat's-beard  and  asters, 
Like  souls  of  dead  flowers. 
With  aimless  emotion 
Still  lingering  unready 
To  leave  their  old  bowers. — Lowell. 

SPIDERS. 

Any  one  that  loves  the  study  of  insect  life  is  sure 
to  be  interested  in  the  habits  of  spiders,  although 

these  creatures  are  not  true 
insects ;  and  there  is  no  bet- 
ter place  for  observing  them 
than   by   roadsides.      There 
are  very  many  kinds  of  spiders,  repre- 
senting many  different  families,  but  only 
a  few  of  the  more  prominent  ones  can 
be  mentioned  here. 


THE    FUNNEL-WEB    WEAVERS. 

Even    the    most    careful    observers 
seldom  realize  what  an  immense  num- 
ber of   spider-webs  are  spun  upon  the 
Fig.  191.— Folded  gi'ass  by  roadsidcs.     But  occasionally 
leaf  of  ^ass  thcsc  wcbs  are  made  visible  in  the  ear- 

with     eg;g-sac 

of  spider.        ly  morning  by  the  dew  which  has  con- 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


223 


densed  upon  them.  At  such  times  we  may  see  the 
grass  covered  by  an  almost  continuous  carpet  of  silk. 
The  greater  number  of  the  webs  seen  at  such 
times  are  of  the  form  which  we  term  funnel-webs. 
They  consist  of  a  concave  sheet  of  silk,  with  a  fun- 
nel-shaped tube  at  one  side,  and  numerous  lines  ex- 
tending in  all  directions  to  the  supporting  spears  of 
grass  (Fig.  192).     The  tube  serves  as  a  hiding  place 


Fig.  192. — Web  of  the  grass-spider. 


for  the  owner  of  the  web  ;  from  this  retreat  the 
spider  runs  out  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  web  to 
seize  any  insect  that  alights  upon  it.  The  tube 
opens  below,  near  the  roots  of  the  grass,  so  that  the 
16 


224 


INSECT    LIFE. 


spider  can  escape  from  it  if  a  too  formidable  insect 
comes  upon  the  web. 

The  most  common  species  of  funnel-web  weaver 
is  the  grass-spider,  Agalena  ncevia  {Ag-a-le'na  nce'vi-d)\ 
this  abounds  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 


THE    ORB-WEAVERS. 

Those  spiders  that  build  nets  which  consist  of  a 
framework  of  radiating  lines  upon  which  is  fastened 

a  thread  in  a  spiral 
manner  (Fig.  193) 
are  called  the  orb- 
weavers.  There  are 
many  species  of 
these,  each  differing 
somewhat  in  habits, 
but  the  more  gen- 
eral features  of 
their  webs  are  quite 
similar. 

No  more  inter- 
esting subject  for 
study  can  be  found 
than  the  methods  of 
work  of  these  spi- 
ders ;  and  we  will 
not  deprive  the  stu- 
dent of  the  pleasure  of  finding  out  for  himself  how 
they  build  their  webs  by  describing  the  process  in 
detail.  We  will,  however,  help  him  a  little  by  call- 
ing attention  to  a  few  points. 

Find  a  completed  web,  and  examine  carefully  the 
silk  of  which  it  is  composed.     With  a  small  stick 


Fig.  193. 


-Partially  completed  web  of  an  orb- 
weaver. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


225 


touch  one  of  the  turns  of  the  spiral  line,  and  observe 
the  result  when  you  attempt  to  take  the  stick  away. 
In  a  similar  manner  touch  one  of  the  radiating  lines, 
and  also  some  of  the 
lines  that  form  the  irreg- 
ular outer  framework  of 
the  web.  You  will  dis- 
cover that  there  are  two 
kinds  of  silk  in  the  web 
of  an  orb-weaver,  which 
differ  in  two  important 
characteristics ;  note  what 
these  are,  and  determine 
to  what  extent  each  kind 
is  used.  What  advanta- 
ges are  gained  by  the  use 
of  each  of  these  kinds  of 
silk? 

If  you  have  the  use  of 
a  microscope,  press  a 
glass  slip  against  a  web 
so  that  a  section  of  it  shall 
adhere  to  it,  and  examine 
this  section  with  a  micro- 
scope. Make  a  sketch 
showing  the  difference  in 
appearance  of  the  two 
kinds  of  silk. 

Find  a  partially  com- 
pleted web  and  observe 
that  a  temporary,  spiral 
stay-line  (Fig.  193,  a,  a)  is 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  web  before  the  appli- 


■-„  fe  .■.   " 

it   : 

/^  ''v'Siif  I 

/ 

c 

/ 

^'ii--^     ^;^      ^S:- 

0^ 

■11:^^^. 

■%m!W'<m 

Fig.  194. —  A  dewy  morning. 


226  INSECT    LIFE. 

cation  of  the  permanent  spiral  line  (Fig.  193,  b,  b). 
How  do  these  two  lines  differ?  What  becomes  of 
the  first  line  ? 

Throw  an  insect  into  a  completed  web  and  make 
notes  on  the  way  in  which  the  spider  captures  and 
destroys  its  prey.  If  the  web  be  that  of  one  of  the 
larger  orb-weavers,  a  large  insect,  as  a  locust  or 
grasshopper,  can  be  used. 

Study  different  species  of  orb-weavers,  and  note 
differences  in  the  structure  of  their  webs  and  in  the 
position  of  the  spiders  while  waiting  for  their  prey. 

Write  an  account  of  the  habits  of  an  orb-weaver. 

On  dewy  mornings  the  webs  of  the  orb-weavers 
are  often  heavily  loaded  with  dew,  so  that  adjacent 
turns  of  the  spiral  thread  adhere  together.  Fig.  194 
represents  such  a  web — one  that  the  writer  saw  from 
his  window  while  at  work  on  this  book. 

BALLOONING    SPIDERS. 

There  are  certain  spiders  that  make  long  journeys 
through  the  air  like  an  aeronaut.  These  ballooning 
spiders  are  frequently  very  abundant,  especially  in 
warm  autumn  days.  At  such  times  innumerable 
threads  can  be  seen  streaming  from  fences,  from 
bushes,  and  the  tips  of  stalks  of  grass,  or  floating 
through  the  air.  The  ballooning  spider  climbs  to 
some  elevated  point,  which  may  be  merely  the  tip  of 
a  stalk  of  grass,  and  then,  standing  on  the  tips  of  its 
feet,  lifts  its  body  as  high  as  it  can,  and  spins  out  a 
thread  of  silk.  This  thread  is  carried  up  and  away 
by  a  current  of  air.  When  the  thread  is  long 
enough,  the  force  of  the  air  current  on  it  is  sufficient 
to  buoy  the  spider  up.     It  then  lets  go  its  hold  with 


ROADSIDE    LIFE.  22/ 

its  feet  and  sails  away.  That  these  spiders  travel 
long  distances  in  this  manner  has  been  shown  by  the 
fact  that  they  have  been  seen  floating  through  the  air 
at  sea  far  from  land. 

A    NOISELESS,    PATIENT    SPIDER. 

A  noiseless,  patient  spider, 

I  mark'd  where,  on  a  little  promontory,  it  stood  isolated  ; 
Mark'd  how,  to  explore  the  vacant,  vast  surrounding, 
It  launch'd  forth  filament,  filament,  filament  out  of  itself; 
Ever  unreeling  them— ever  tirelessly  speeding  them. 

And  you,  O  my  soul,  where  you  stand, 

Surrounded,  surrounded,  in  measureless  oceans  of  space. 

Ceaselessly  musing,  venturing,  throwing — seeking  the  spheres,  to 

connect  them  ; 
Till  the  bridge  you  will  need  be  form'd— till  the  ductile  anchor 

hold; 
Till  the  gossamer  thread  you  fling  catch  somewhere,  O  my  soul. 

Walt  Whitman. 

THE    COBWEB-WEAVERS. 

Many  are  the  kinds  of  webs  spun  by  different 
spiders.  Some  of  them,  as  the  orb-webs  and  the 
funnel-webs,  delight  us  with  their  wonderful  regular- 
ity of  form,  while  others  appear  to  be  a  mere  shape- 
less maze  of  threads.  Such  are  the  structures  whose 
presence  in  the  corners  of  our  rooms  torment  thrifty 
housewives,  and  w^hich  are  disrespectfully  termed 
cobwebs. 

Although  the  house  spiders  are  the  most  familiar 
members  of  this  family,  the  greater  number  of  spe- 
cies spin  their  webs  in  the  fields  on  bushes.  These 
webs  usually  consist  of  a  flat  or  curved  sheet,  under 
which  the  spider  hangs  back  downward.     This  sheet 


228  INSECT   LIFE. 

is  supported  by  threads  running  in  all  directions  to 
the  neighboring  objects.  Frequently  there  is  a  large 
number  of  these  supporting  threads  above  the  web, 
which  serve  the  additional  purpose  of  impeding  the 
flight  of  insects  and  causing  them   to  fall. 

Some  of  these  spiders  do  not  remain  in  their  webs, 
but  have  a  nest  in  a  neighboring  crack 
or  corner,  from  which  they  rush  to  seize 
their   prey.      And    sometimes  there  is  a     .^m^.  j 
funnel-shaped  tube  leading  to    this  nest,    ^^f^y    1 
But  these   spiders    differ    from   the  true 
funnel  -  web    weavers    in    running    back      ^^ 
downward  on  the  lower  side  of  their  web. 

The  cobweb-weavers  are  small  spiders  with  unu- 
sually slim  legs.  Fig.  195  represents  a  common  spe- 
cies. 

IN    A    GARRET. 

Here,  in  the  summer,  at  a  broken  pane, 

The  yellow  wasps  come  in,  and  buzz  and  build 

Among  the  rafters  ;  wind  and  snow  and  rain 
All  enter,  as  the  seasons  are  fulfilled. 

Here  where  the  gray  incessant  spiders  spin, 
Shrouding  from  view  the  sunny  world  outside, 

A  golden  bumblebee  has  blundered  in 
And  lost  the  way  to  liberty,  and  died. 

Elizabeth  Akers^ 

THE    RUNNING    SPIDERS. 

There  are  certain  large,  dark-colored,  hairy 
spiders  that  are  common  by  roadsides,  running  over 
the  ground  or  lurking  under  stones  and  fences. 
These  spiders  frequently  attract  attention  by  drag- 

*  By  permission  of  Messrs.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


229 


ging  after  them -a  large  gray  ball  (Fig.  196);  this  is 
the   egg-sac  which  the  female  carries  about  with  her 


Fig.  196. — Lycosa  and  egg-sac. 

attached  to  her  spinnerets.  These  spiders  run  swift- 
ly, and  as  they  depend  on  the  use  of  their  legs  for  the 
capture  of  their  prey  they  are  called  running  spiders. 
The  larger  members  of  our  common  species  be- 
long to  the  genus  Lycosa  {Ly-co'sa).  These  drag  after 
them  their  egg-sacs,  as  described  above ;  and  when 
the  young  hatch  they  climb  on  their  mother's  back 
and  are  carried  about  for  a  time.  The  females  of  the 
genus  Dolomedes  {Dol-o-me'des),  which  also  belongs  to 
the  family  of  running  spiders,  carry  their  egg-sac  in 
their  mandibles  until  the  young  are  ready  to  hatch. 
At  this  time  the  mother  fastens  the  egg-sac  in  a  bush 
and  spins  a  web  of  irregular  threads  about 
it,  among  which  the  young  spiders  re- 
main for  a  time. 


THE    JUMPING    SPIDERS. 

The  jumping  spiders  are  of  medium 
size,  with  a  short  body,  and  short,  stout      '    j 
legs  (Fig.    197).      They  are    common  on       fig.  197. 
plants,  logs,  fences,  and  the  sides  of  build- 
ings.    They  are  very  apt  to  attract  attention  by  their 
peculiar  appearance,  their  short,  stout  legs,   bright 
colors,  conspicuous  eyes,  and  quick,  jumping  move- 


230 


INSECT    LIFE. 


ments  being  very  different  from  those  of  ordinary 
spiders.  These  self-possessed  spiders  are  able  to 
stare  an  ordinary  observer  out  of  countenance.  They 
move  sidewise  or  backward  with  great  ease,  and  can 
jump  a  long  distance.  They  stalk  their  prey,  and 
make  no  webs  except  nests,  in  which  they  hide  in 
winter  or  when  molting  or  laying  eggs. 

THE    CRAB-SPIDERS. 

There  are  certain  spiders  which  are  called  crab- 
spiders,  on  account  of  the  short  and  broad  form  of 
the  body,  and  the  curious  fact  that  they  can  walk 
more  readily  sidewise  or  backward  than  forward. 

These  spiders  spin  no  w^ebs,  but  lie  in  wait  for 
their  prey.  They  live  chiefly  on  plants  and  fences, 
and  in  the  winter  hide  in  cracks  and  under  stones 
and  bark.  Most  of  the  species  are  marked  with  gray 
and  brown,  like  the  bark  upon  which  they  live.  Some 
species  conceal  themselves  in  flowers,  where  they  lie 
in  wait  for  their  prey.  These  are  brightly  colored, 
like  the  flowers  which  they  inhabit,  so 
that  insects  visiting  flowers  may  alight 
within  reach  of  a  spider  before  seeing  it. 
One  of  the  best-known  members  of 
Fig.  198.        this   family   is   the   female    of  Misumena 

Misiimena  vatia.  .  ,  -^ 

vatia  {Mi-sii-vie'na  va'ti-d).  This  is  milk- 
white,  with  sometimes  a  light  crimson  mark  on  each 
side  of  the  abdomen,  and  is  found  within  flowers 
(Fig.  198). 

THE    TARANTULAS    AND    THE    TRAP-DOOR    SPIDERS. 

Those  who  live  in  the  warmer  parts  of  our  coun- 
try know  well  the  large  spiders  commonly  called  ta- 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


231 


rantulas.  These  are  the  giants  among  spiders,  some 
of  them  being  the  largest  known  ;  but  some  species 
of  this  family  are  not  very  large.  They  are  dark-col- 
ored, hairy  spiders,  and  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  families  mentioned  here  by  the  fact  that  the 
claw  of  the  mandibles  works  up  and  down  instead  of 
sidewise. 

The  members  of  this  family  do  not  construct  true 
webs,  but  they  dig  long  tubes  in  the  earth  which 
they  line  with  silk,  or  line  their  hiding  places  in  clefts 
in  trees  or  elsewhere  with  a  layer  of  silk.  They  live 
only  in  warm  countries. 

One  of  the  best  known  of  the  tarantulas  is  Ettryp- 
elma  Jientzii  {Eu-ryp' el-nia  hejitz'i-i).  This  species  oc- 
curs in  the  South  and  in  the  Middle  West,  and  is  the 
largest  of  our  spiders  (Fig.  199).  Several  closely 
allied  species  are  found  in  California. 

But  the  members  of  this  family  that  have  at- 
tracted most  admiration  on  account  of  their  habits* 


Fig.  199. — A  tarantula,  Eurypelma  Jientzii. 


are  the  trap-door  spiders.     These  dig  a  tube  in  the 
ground,  as  do  many  other  members  of  this  family  ; 


232 


INSECT   LIFE. 


but  this  tube  is  lined  with  a  denser  layer  of  silk,  and 
is  provided  with  a  hinged  lid,  which  fits  the  opening 
of  the  tube  with  wonderful  accuracy  (Fig.  200). 
There  are  two  small  holes  in  the  edge  of  the  lid 
farthest  from  the  hinge  ;  when  the  spider  enters  its 
nest  it  runs  over  the  door,  and,  catching  the  claws  of 
its  hind  legs  into  these  holes,  pulls  the  door  shut  after 
it.     The  spider  hides  in  this  nest  when  not  seeking 


Fig.  2CO.  — Entrance  to  nest  of  a  trap-door  spider. 

its  prey.  Some  species  take  the  precaution  to  build 
a  branch  to  their  nest,  and  to  provide  this  branch 
with  a  door.  As  this  door  forms  a  part  of  one  side 
of  the  main  tube,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  observed  by 
any  creature  which  may  find  its  way  past  the  first 
door  of  the  nest. 

Several  species  of  trap-door  spiders  occur  in  the 
Southern  and  Southwestern  States. 

THE    HARVESTMEN    OR    GRANDFATHER-GRAYBEARDS. 

Among  the  more  common  frequenters  of  road- 
sides are  the  harvestmen,  which  are  near  relatives  of 
spiders.  They  differ  from  spiders,  however,  in  hav- 
ing the  abdomen  segmented.  Most  harvestmen  can 
be  recognized   by  their  very  long  and  slender  legs 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


233 


(Fig.  201),  although  some  species  have  comparatively 
short  ones.  They  feed  on  small  insects,  especially 
aphids,  and  are  perfectly  harmless. 


Fig.  2CI. 


It  is  a  common  practice  with  children  to  catch 
these  creatures  and  say  to  them,  "  Grandfather-gray- 
beard,  tell  me  where  the  cows  are  or  I'll  kill  you  ! " 
As  the  poor  frightened  animal  points  its  legs  in  all 
directions  in  its  frantic  efforts  to  escape,  it  usually 
earns  its  freedom,  but  too  often  it  is  not  without  the 
loss  of  one  or  more  legs. 

THE    LOCUSTS,    GRASSHOPPERS,    AND    CRICKETS. 

The  locusts,  grasshoppers,  and  crickets  are  the 
most  universally  common  and  conspicuous  of  the 
roadside  insects ;  for  at  any  time,  from  early  spring 
to  late  autumn,  some  of  them  can  be  found  by  any 
grassy  roadside. 

These  three  groups  of  insects  constitute  three 
closely  related  families  of  the  order  Orthoptera, 
which  are  characterized  on  pages  72-74.  They  all 
agree  in  having  the  hind  legs  fitted  for  jumping,  but 
differ  in  the  form  of  the  antennae  and  of  the  oviposi- 
tor, and  in  the  number  of  segments  in  the  tarsi. 

The  crickets  are  generally  known  as  such,  but 
confusion  exists  in  the  common  names  of  the  other 


234  INSECT    LIFE. 

two  families,  for  most  people  that  have  not  made  a 
special  study  of  insects  do  not  make  any  distinction 
between  the  locusts  and  the  true  grasshoppers,  but 
call  the  members  of  both  families  grasshoppers.  On 
this  account  the  locusts  are  sometimes  called  the 
short-horned  grasshoppers,  and  the  true  grasshoppers 
are  distinguished  as  the  long-horned  grasshoppers. 

The  pupil  should  collect  specimens  of  each  of  the 
three  families,  and,  after  studying  the  descriptions 
on    pages    72-74,    label    these 
specimens  properly   and  place 
them  in  his  collection. 

Which  of   the   two  insects 
represented    in    Fig.    202    is   a 
Fig.  202.-A  locust  and  ^     true  grasshopper? 

grasshopper.  If  ^j^g  p^pji  ^as  not  already 

done  so,  a  series  of  specimens  of  either  locusts,  grass- 
hoppers, or  crickets  which  illustrates  incomplete 
metamorphosis  should  be  collected.  See  Lessons 
XII  and  XIII. 

Frequently  small  red  parasites  are  found  clinging 
to  locusts ;  these  are  mites.     See  page  56. 

Many  locusts  and  grasshoppers  exhibit  what  is 
known  as  protective  coloring — that  is,  their  colors 
are  such  as  to  protect  them  from  birds  when  at  rest 
in  their  usual  haunts.  Thus  the  true  grasshoppers, 
which  live  among  the  blades  of  grass  or  the  foliage 
of  shrubs  and  trees,  are  usually  green,  while  many 
locusts  that  rest  on  the  ground  are  of  the  same  color 
as  the  soil. 

Collect  specimens  illustrating  this. 

Certain  species  of  locusts  are  very  liable  to  be 
destro3^ed  by  a  fungous  disease.     The  victims  before 


ROADSIDE    LIFE.  235 

dying  climb  up  some  weed,  to  which  they  cling  so 
firmly  in  their  death  grip  that  their  bodies  remain 
clinging  to  the  plant  long  after  death.  Find  speci- 
mens of  locusts  that  have  been  killed  in  this  way  and 
preserve  them  with  the  part  of  the  plant  to  which 
they  are  clinging. 

THE    GRASSHOPPER    AND    THE    CRICKET. 

The  poetry  of  earth  is  never  dead  : 

When  all  the  birds  are  faint  with  the  hot  sun, 

And  hide  in  cooling  trees,  a  voice  will  run 

From  hedge  to  hedge  about  the  new-mown  mead  : 

That  is  the  grasshopper's — he  takes  the  lead 

In  summer  luxury — he  has  never  done 

With  his'  delights  ;  for,  when  tired  out  with  fun, 

He  rests  at  ease  beneath  some  pleasant  weed. 

The  poetry  of  earth  is  ceasing  never  : 

On  a  lone  winter  evening,  when  the  frost 

Has  wrought  a  silence,  from  the  stove  there  shrills 

The  cricket's  song,  in  warmth  increasing  ever, 

And  seems  to  one  in  drowsiness  half  lost. 

The  grasshopper's  among  some  grassy  hills. 

John  Keats. 

THE    SONGS    OF    INSECTS. 

Comparatively  little  is  known  regarding  the  songs 
of  insects,  if  under  this  head  we  include  all  the 
sounds  produced  by  these  creatures.  In  a  few  in- 
stances the  way  in  which  the  sounds  are  produced 
and  the  apparent  object  are  understood  ;  but  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases  this  is  not  so. 

Flies  buzz  when  on  the  wing,  but  why?  It  may 
be  that  the  sound  is  merely  incident  to  the  rapid  mo- 
tion of  their  wings,  and  means  no  more  than  the  hum 
of  rapidly  moving  machinery.     But  this  can  hardly 


236 


INSECT   LIFE. 


be  true  of  the  sounds  produced  by  bees.  The  care- 
ful student  of  the  honey-bee  soon  learns  a  language 
which  is  as  intelligible  to  him  as  spoken  words.  The 
contented  hum  of  the  worker  gathering  pollen  and 
nectar  is  very  different  from  the  savage  buzz  of  the 
same  individual  when  threatening  an  intruder  who  is 
disturbing  the  hive.  So  also  is  the  sound  produced 
by  a  queenless  colony  very  different  from  that  pro- 
duced by  one  that  has  not  this  misfortune.  The 
sound  produced  by  bees  emerging  from  any  number 
of  hives  when  merely  the  ordinary  labor  is  going  on 
would  not  be  mistaken  for  the  tumult  caused  by  a 
sino^le  swarm  leavins^  its  hive  for  a  new  home. 

Still,  perhaps  the  only  meaning  of  these  various 
sounds  is  that  the  bees  move  in  a  different  way  when 
influenced  by  different  emotions,  and  that  the  produc- 
tion of  a  peculiar  sound  is  merely  incidental  and  is 
not  the  object  of  the  peculiar  motion. 

There  are  insects,  however,  in  which  distinct 
musical  organs  are  developed,  and  that  make  move- 
ments that  have  for  their  sole  object  the  production 
of  sound.  It  is  to  these  singers  that  we  will  turn  our 
attention. 

Chief  among  them  are  the  cicadas,  locusts,  grass- 
hoppers, and  crickets.  In  all  of  these  it  is  only  the 
males  that  sing,  these  insects  resembling  the  song- 
birds in  this  respect.  We  will  study  here  only  the 
musical  organs  of  Orthoptera. 

Locusts  produce  sounds  in  two  wavs : — First,  cer- 
tain species  rub  the  inner  surface  of  the  hind  femora, 
upon  which  there  is  a  row  of  minute  spines,  against 
the  outer  surface  of  the  fore  wings.  In  this  case  each 
fore  wing  serves  as  a  fiddle  and  each  hind  leg  as  a  fid- 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


237 


dle-bow.  Second,  other  species  rub  together  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  front  edge  of  the  hind  wings  and 
the  under  surface  of  the  fore  wings.  This  is  done 
while  the  locust  is  flying,  and  the  result  is  a  crack- 
ling sound.  Third,  the  males  of  the  different  kinds 
of  true  grasshoppers,  including  the  katydids,  are  pro- 
vided with  an  elaborate  musical  apparatus,  by  means 
of  which  they  call  their  mates.  This  consists  of  a  pe- 
culiar arrangement  of  the  veins  and  cells  of  a  portion 
of  each  fore  wing  near  its  base.  This  arrangement 
differs  in  the  different  spe- 
cies, but  in  each  it  is  such 
that  by  rubbing  the  fore 
wings  together  they  are 
made  to  vibrate,  and  thus 
produce  the  sound.  Fig. 
203  represents  a  fore  wing 
of  the  male  of  a  common 
meadow  grasshopper,  and 
Fig.  204  that  of  a  female  of 
the  same  species. 

Of  all  the  insect  musi- 
cians the  crickets  are  most 
easily  observed  ;  we  will 
therefore  select  them  for  our  special  study  : — 

1.  Collect  some  crickets  with  fully  developed 
wings  and  bring  them  alive  to  school. 

2.  Note  that  some  of  the  crickets  have  a  long, 
spear-shaped  organ  at  the  hind  end  of  the  body : 
these  are  the  females  and  this  organ  is  the  oviposi- 
tor. The  males  differ  from  the  females,  not  only  in 
lacking  the  ovipositor,  but  also  in  the  form  of  the 
front  wings. 


Fig,  203. — Wing- 
cover  of  male 
meadow  grass- 
hopper. 


Fig.  204. — ^Wing- 
cover  of  female 
meadow  grass- 
hopper. 


238 


INSECT   LIFE. 


^M^^ 


3.  Prepare  a  breeding-  cage  by  placing  a  sod  of 
growing  grass  in  it,  put  several  living  male  crick- 
ets in  it,  and  set  the  cage  where  the  insects  can  be 
watched.  After  the  insects  have  become  used  to  the 
cage  they  will  chirp,  and  the  pupils  can  determine 
how  it  is  done. 

4.  Kill  a  pair  of  crickets  by  placing  them  in  a 
cyanide  bottle  and  then  study  their  wings.     How  do 

the  front  wings  of 
the  male  differ  from 
those  of  the  female? 
Make  drawings 

showing  the  differ- 
ences. 

5.  If  you  have 
the  use  of  a  micro- 
scope observe  that 
the  principal  vein 
which  extends  diag- 
onally    across      the 

Fig.  205. — Musical  organs  of  a  male  cricket.       DaSC       Ol       the       lOrC 

wing  of  the  male 
(Fig.  205,  a)  is  furnished  on  the  lower  side  of  the  wing 
with  ridges  like  those  of  a  file  (Fig.  205,  b) ;  and  that 
on  the  inner  margin  of  this  wing,  a  short  distance 
toward  the  base  from  the  end  of  the  principal  vein, 
there  is  a  hardened  portion,  which  may  be  called  the 
scraper  (Fig.  205,  c). 

6.  Watch  a  cricket  while  chirping  and  determine 
how  the  files  and  scrapers  of  the  two  fore  wings  are 
used. 

7.  Write  an  account  of  the  way  in  which  crickets 
chirp. 


t 


t 


*^f^ 


Plate  XIV. 


Plate  XIV.— TIGER-MOTHS. 

(See  page  239.) 


FIGURE 

I.     The  Bella-moth,   Utetheisa  bella. 


The  Trigonal  Tiger-moth,  Zatrephes  trigona. 

The  Great  Leopard  Moth,  Ecpantheria  ocularia. 

The  Arge  Tiger-moth,  Eyprepia  arge. 

The  Nais  Tiger-moth,  Eyprepia  nais. 

The  Hickory  Tiger-moth,  Halisidota  cary(2. 

The  Clymene  Tiger-moth,  Haploa  clymene. 


aHTOM-^^aOIT-^.VIX  axAJ^ 

,,,.w      ('Qi^  ^s^q  932) 

.Sis^^-^xt^  z^^v<^rrs;^^  ,fijom-i9^rT  iBnoghT  ariX     .£ 
.^^<;t."!i:i  »^QVm\i)'W  ,riJom-i9giT  •^{lOvioiH  arlT     ,d 


ROADSIDE   LIFE.  239 

KATYDID. 

I  love  to  hear  thine  earnest  voice. 

Wherever  thou  art  hid. 
Thou  testy  little  dogmatist, 

Thou  pretty  katydid  ! 
Thou  mindest  me  of  gentle  folks — 

Old  gentle  folks  are  they — 
Thou  say'st  an  undisputed  thing 

In  such  a  solemn  way. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

CATERPILLARS,    MOTHS,    AND    BUTTERFLIES. 

The  Tiger-moths. 

Among  the  very  many  kinds  of  caterpillars  that 
may  be  found  by  roadsides,  the  most  common  and 
most  widely  distributed  are  the  larvse  of  certain 
tiger-moths.  These  larvae  are  densely  clothed  with 
hair,  and  are  often  found  running  over  the  surface  of 
the  ground  ;  for  many  species  seem  to  have  but  little 
choice  of  food  plant,  but  roam  free  like  cattle  in  a 
pasture.  When  full  grown  these  larvae  spin  cocoons, 
which  are  composed  of  the  hair  of  the  larvae  fastened 
together  with  a  thin  warp  of  silk.  The  adults  are 
called  tiger-moths  because  many  of  the  species  are 
conspicuously  spotted. 

The  tiger-moths  constitute  the  family  ArctiiDtE 
(Arc-ti'i-das).  There  is  not  space  here  to  describe 
other  moths  that  occur  by  roadsides. 

In  collecting  these  larvae  for  breeding  observe  in 
the  case  of  each  species  whether  it  is  restricted  to 
some  particular  kind  of  plant  or  not.  In  the  former 
case  the  breeding  cage  should  be  supplied  with  that 
kind  of  plant,  but  in  the  latter  case  a  sod  of  grass 
will  probably  furnish  the  .larvae  satisfactory  food. 
17 


240 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Fig.  206. 


The  most  commonly  observed  species  of  these  insects 
are  the  following  : — 

The  Isabella  tiger-moth,  Pyrrharctia  Isabella  {Pyr- 
rharc'ti-a  is-a-bel'la). — The  larva  of  this  species  is  the 
evenly  clipped,  furry  caterpillar,  reddish  brown  in 

the    middle   and  black 
^,  ;fi.iit*iALrM'«asK^i%3t,  ^|.   Q2io\i  end,  which  is 

seen  so  commonly  in 
the  autumn  and  early 
spring  (Fig.  206).  The 
adult  is  of  a  dull  gray- 
ish tawny  yellow,  with  a  few  black  dots  on  the  wings. 
The  yellow-bear  Spilosoma  virginica  iSpil-o-so' ma 
vir-gin'i-ca). — The  larva  of  this  species  is  one  of  the 
most  common  hairy  cat- 
erpillars found  feeding 
on  herbaceous  plants.  It 
is  clothed  with  yellow 
hairs,  which  are  very  un- 
even in  length,  and  which 
vary  greatly  in  color  in 
different  individuals.  The  moth  (Fig.  207)  is  snowy 
white,  with  the  wings  marked  by  a  few  black  dots; 
these  vary  in  number,  but  there  are  rarely  more 
than  three  on  each  wing. 

The  salt-marsh  caterpillar,  Estigmene  acrcea  {Es-tig- 

me'ne  a-crce'a). — This 
species  is  not  re- 
stricted to  salt- 
marshes,  as  its  name 
might  indicate,  but 
is  widely  distributed 

Fig.  2oS.-Estigmene  acrcza,  throughout   the  Unl- 


FiG.  207. — Spilosoma  virginica. 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


241 


Fig.  209. — Eyprepia  virgo. 


ted  States.  The  moth  (Fig.  208)  is  white,  marked 
with  yellow  and  black.  The  sexes  differ  greatly  in 
the  ground  col- 
or of  the  wings  ; 
in  the  female 
this  is  white 
throughout ;  in 
the  male  only 
the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  fore 
wings  is  white, 
the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  fore  wings  and  the  hind  wings  above  and 
below  being  yellow. 

The  most  striking  in  appearance  of  our  common 
tiger-moths  belong  to  the  genus  Eyprepia  {Ey-pre'pi-d). 
Of  these  there 
are  many  spe- 
cies. Fig.  209 
represents  one 
of  the  larger 
ones.  In  these 
insects  the  fore 
wings  are  vel- 
vety black, 
marked      with 

yellowish  or  pink  bands ;  in  some  species 
the  lighter  color  predominates,  so  that  the 
fore  wings  appear  to  be  yellow  or  pink 
spotted  with  black. 

The  harlequin  milkweed-caterpillar,  Cycnia  egle 
{Cyc'ni-a  eg'le). — This  larva  is  the  most  common  cater- 
pillar found  on  milkweed.     It  is  clothed  with  tufts 


Fig.  210, 


-The  harlequin  milkweed- 
caterpillar. 


242  INSECT    LIFE. 

of  orange,  black,  and   white  (Fig.  210).     The  adult 
has  mouse-gray,  unspotted  wings. 

MOTHS.* 

Ghosts  of  departed  winged  things, 

What  memories  are  those 
That  tempt  you  with  your  damask  wings 

Here  where  my  candle  glows  ? 

Vainly  you  hover,  circling  oft 

The  tongue  of  yellow  flame : 
A  tiger  by  caresses  soft 

You  vainly  seek  to  tame. 

Here  is  no  hope  for  you  :  nay,  here 

Death  lurks  within  the  light, 
To  leap  upon  you  flying  near 

And  sweep  you  from  the  night. 

Moon-butterflies,  back  to  your  blooms 

Born  of  the  dew  and  stars  ! 
Hence,  ghosts,  and  find  again  your  glooms 

Hidden  by  shadow-bars. 

Quick — speed  across  the  dusky  blue, 

Lest,  in  a  sudden  breath. 
This  tawny  tiger  wake,  and  you 

Endure  a  second  death  ! 

Frank  Dempster  Sherman. 

THE    SWALLOW-TAIL    BUTTERFLIES. 

These  magnificent  butterflies  are  easily  recog- 
nized  by  their  large  size  and  the  tail-like  prolonga- 
tions of  the  hind  wings.  The  ground  color  of  the 
wings  is  black,  which  is  usually  marked  with  yellow, 

*  From    Lyrics   for    a    Lute,   by   permission   of   Messrs.    Houghton, 
Mifiain  &  Co. 


Plate  XV. 


Plate  XV.— SWALLOW-TAIL   BUTTERFLIES. 

FIGL'RE 

1.  The  Black  Swallow-tail,  Papilio polyxenes.     See  page  243. 

2.  The  Tiger  Swallow-tail,  y«j(?«/aflVj- ^/az^iT^^j-.     See  page  243. 


f 


.8aU^il3TTUa   JIAT-¥/OJJ 


7X  axAjq 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


243 


and  often  with  metallic  blue  or  green  ;  sometimes 
the  yellow  markings  are  more  conspicuous  than  the 

black  ground 
color.  The  swal- 
low-tails belonof 
to  the  family  Pa- 
PILIONID^  (Pa- 
pi  l-i-on'i-dse).  The 
following  well- 

known  species  will 
serve  as  illustra- 
tions : — 

The  black  swal- 
low-tail, Papilio  polyxenes  {Pa-pW 
i-o  po-lyx' e-nes).-—\n  the  adult  the 
wings  are  black,  crossed  with 
two  rows  of  yellow  spots,  and 
with  marginal  lunules  of  the 
same  color.  The  two  rows  of 
spots  are  much  more  distinct  in 
the  male  than  in  the  female. 
The  larva  (Fig.  211)  is  the  green 
caterpillar,  ringed  with  black 
and  spotted  with  yellow,  that 
eats  the  leaves  of  caraway. 

The  tiger  swallow-tail,  Jas- 
oniades  glau  ciis  ( Jas-o-n  i'a-des 
glaii' ciis).~T\i\s  is  the  very  com- 
mon large  swallow-tail  with  yel- 
low wings.  On  the  fore  wings 
there  are  four  black  bars  extending  back  from  the 
costa ;  the  inner  one  of  these  crosses  the  hind  wings 
also.     In  the  South  there  are  two  forms  of  the  fe- 


FiG.  211. — Larva  of  the 
black  swallow-tail. 


244 


INSECT    LIFE. 


male ;  in  the  second  form  the  disk  of  the  wings  is 
entirely  black,  but  the  black  bands  of  the  other  form 
are  faintly  indicated  by  a  darker 
shade.  The  larva  of  this  species  is 
represented  by  Fig.  212.  It  has 
the  curious  habit  of  weaving  upon 
a  leaf  a  carpet  of  silk,  upon  which 


I^IG.  212. — Larva  of  the 
tiger  swallow-tail  on 
its  bed. 


Fig.  213. — The  zebra-swallow-tail. 


it  rests  when  not  feeding  ;  when  nearly  full  grown, 
instead  of  spinning  a  simple  carpet  as  before,  it 
stretches  a  web  across  the  hollow  of  a  leaf,  and  thus 
makes  a  spring  bed  upon  which  it  sleeps. 

The  zebra  swallow-tail,  Iphiclides  ajax  {Iph-i-cli'des 
a'j'ax). — This  butterfly  (Fig.  213)  has  the  wings 
crossed  by  several  bands  of  greenish  white.  Three 
distinct  forms  of  this  species  occur ;  these  differ  in 
size,  in  the  length  of  the  tails  of  the  hind  wings,  and 
in  the  time  of  appearance.  The  one  figured  here  is 
the  early-spring  form.  * 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


245 


THE    WHITES    AND    THE    YELLOWS. 

These  are  the  most  abundant  of  all  our  butterflies, 
being  common  everywhere  in  fields  and  roads. 
They  are  usually  of 
medium  size,  but 
some  of  them  are 
small.  They  belong 
to  the  family  PiER- 
ID.E  (Pi-er'i-dse). 

The  Whites. — 
The  more  common 
representatives  of 
this   group    are    the  ^  .     ^.u      ^.       n 

,  ^  Fig.  214.— A  cabbage-butterfly. 

well-known  cabbage- 
butterflies.     The  most  widely  distributed  species  is 
Picris  rapce  {Pi'e-ris  ra'pce).      Fig.  214  represents  the 


Fig.  215. — Larvae  and  pupa 
of  a  cabbage-butterfly. 


male ;  in  the  female  there  are  two  spots  on  the  outer 
part  of  the  fore  wing,  besides  the  black  tip.     In  Fig. 


246 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Fig.  216.— a  yellow. 


215  two  larvae  and  a  chrysalis  are  represented  on  a 
cabbage  leaf. 

The  Yellows. — The  yellows  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  bright  yellow  colors,  although  in  some 

species  whitish  forms 
occur.  They  abound 
almost  everywhere  in 
open  fields,  and  are  com- 
mon in  wet  places  in 
roads.  Fig.  216  repre- 
sents the  male  of  a  com- 
mon species  ;  in  the  fe- 
male the  border  on  the 
fore  wings  is  broader, 
and  contains  a  submarginal  row  of  yellow  spots. 
This  species  is  dimorphic.  The  second  form  is  rep- 
resented only  by  the  female  sex,  and  differs  in  having 
the  ground  color  of  the  wings  white  instead  of  yel- 
low.    The  larva  feeds  on  clover  and  allied  plants. 

THE    GOSSAMER-WINGED    BUTTERFLIES. 

There  are  certain  butterflies,  many  of  which  are 
common  by  roadsides,  that  are  of  small  size  and  deli- 
cate structure.  These  constitute  the  family  Lyc^n- 
ID^  (Ly-caen'i-dse),  or  gossamer-winged  butterflies. 
They  resemble  in  size  the  smaller  skippers  (see  page 
81),  but  can  be  distinguished  at  a  glance  from  the 
skippers  by  their  delicate  wings  and  more  slender 
bodies.  Our  common  species  are  grouped  under 
three  heads — the  coppers,  the  blues,  and  the  hair- 
streaks. 

The  Coppers. — The  coppers  are  easily  distin- 
guished from  other  gossamer-winged  butterflies  by 


[TiKiTTua—.r/x 


9riT      .V 
.isvoId  n 


'y 

.s 

■  r 

.F 

IBS 

\^dJ 

■i^ 

Plate  XVI.— BUTTERFLIES. 

FIGURE 

1.  ^\i^'^d\\\xnox^,  Euphydryas  phaeton. 

2.  An  Orange-tip,  Anthocharis  stella. 

3.  The    Green-clouded    Swallow-tail,    EuphcBades    troilus.      The 

larva  feeds  on  spice  bush. 

4.  The  Dog's-head,  Zerene  ccesonia.     The  larva  feeds  on  clover. 


Plate  XVI. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


247 


their  orange-red  and  brown  colors,  each  with  a  cop- 
pery tinge,  and   conspicuous   black 
markings.      Fig.    217    represents    a 
common  species. 

The  Blues. — The  blues  are  so 
called  on  account  of  the  blue  color 
of  the  upper  surface  of  the  wings.    ^^^-  ^i?-— a  copper. 
The  extent  of  this  color,  how- 
ever, differs  greatly  in  different 
species,  and    also    in    the    two 
sexes  of  the  same  species.     Fig. 
218    represents    the    size     and 
form  of  a  common  species. 
The  Hair-streaks. — These 
'  are    usually  dark    brown,  with 

Fig.  218.-A  blue.  delicate    striped    markings    on 

the  lower  surface  of  the  wings, 
which  suggested  the  common 
name  given  above  ;  but  some  spe- 
cies are  brilliantly  marked  with 
metallic  blue  or  green.  The 
hind  wings  are  also  commonly 
furnished  with  delicate  tail-like 
prolongations  (Fig.  219).  The 
fore  wings  of  the  male  often  bear 
a  small  dull  oval  spot  near  the  fig.  219.-A  hair-streak. 
middle  of  the  costal  part  of  the  wing — the  discal  stig- 
ma— w^hich  is  filled  with  the  peculiar  scent-scales 
known  as  andriconia. 


THE    rOUR-FOOTED    BUTTERFLIES. 

The  family  Nymphalid^  (Nym-phal'i-dge),  which 
includes  a  large  proportion  of  our  butterflies,  differ 


248 


INSECT   LIFE. 


from  all  others  in  our  fauna  in  having  the  fore  legs 
very  greatly  reduced  in  size  in  both  sexes.  So  great 
is  the  reduction  that  these  legs  can  not  be  used  for 
walking,  but  are  folded  on  the  breast  like  a  tippet. 
A  slight  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  fore  legs  oc- 
curs in  the  Lycsenidse,  but  there  it  occurs  only  in 
the  males  and  to  a  much  less  degree  than  in  this 
family. 

This  is  the  largest  of  the  families  of  butterflies. 
It  not  only  surpasses  the  other  families  in  number  of 
species,  but  it  contains  a  greater  number  and  variety  of 
striking  forms  and  also  a  larger  proportion  of  the  spe- 
cies of  butterflies  familiar  to  every  observer  of  insects. 
There  may  be  in  any  locality  one  or  two  species  of 


Fig.  220. — The  monarch. 


yellows  or  of  whites  more  abundant,  but  the  larger 
number  of  species  commonly  observed  are  four- 
footed  butterflies.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
more  common  forms: — 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


249 


The  Monarch. — The  monarch,  Anosia  plexippus 
{A-iio'si-a  plex-ip'pus),  can  be  recognized  by  Fig.  220. 
The  larva  feeds  upon  different  species  of  milk- 
weed. When  full  grown  it  is  yellow,  broadly 
banded  with  black,  and  bears  a  pair  of  long,  fleshy 
filaments  on  the  second  thoracic  segment  and  a 
similar  pair  on  the  seventh  abdominal  segment. 
The  chrysalis  is  bright  green,  dotted  with  golden 
spots. 

The  Viceroy. — The  viceroy,  BasilarcJiia  archip- 
piis  {Bas-i-lar'dii-a  ar-chip'pus),  resembles  the  monarch 
in  color  and  markings,  but  can  be  distinguished  by 
its  smaller  size  and  by  the  presence  of  a  transverse 
black  band  on  the  hind  wings  (Fig.  221). 


Fig.  221. — The  viceroy. 

Notwithstanding  the  close  resemblance  in  ap- 
pearance of  these  two  insects,  they  belong  to  dif- 
ferent subfamilies  ot  butterflies,  the  viceroy  exhib- 
iting to  a  wonderful  degree  what  is  known  as  mim- 
icry. 

The   Crescent-spots.— These  are  small   butter- 


250 


INSECT    LIFE. 


flies,  of  which  many  species  occur  in  this  country. 
They  are  of  a  fulvous  color,  heavily  marked  with 
black.  Each  species  varies  considerably  in  mark- 
ings, and  different  species  re- 
semble each  other  quite  close- 
ly, making  this  a  difficult 
group  for  the  beginning  stu- 
dent. Fig.  222  represents  a 
common  species. 

The  Fritillaries.— The 
fritillaries  (frit'il-la-ries)  is  a 
group  of  butterflies  including  species  varying  from 
a  little  below  to  somewhat  above  medium  size.  The 
color  of  the  wings  is  fulvous,  bordered  and  check- 
ered with  black ;  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings 
is  often  marked  with  curving  rows  of  silvery  spots. 
The  larvas  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  violets.  Fig.  223 
represents  a  common  species. 


Fig.  222. — A  crescent-spot. 


Fig.  223. — A  fritillary. 


The  Angle-wings. — To  this  group  belong  many 
of  our  best-known  butterflies.     With  these  the  outer 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


251 


margin  of  the  fore  wings  is  usually  decidedly  angular 
or  notched,  as  if  a  part  had  been  cut  away.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  species  hibernate  in  the  adult  state, 
and  some  of  them  are  the  first  butterflies  to  appear 
in  the  spring.  The  following  are  some  of  our  more 
common  species  : — ■ 

The  red  admiral,  Vanessa  atalanta  (Va-nes'sa  at-a- 
lan'ta). — The  larva  of  this  species  feeds  chiefly  on 
nettle     and     on 
hop.     The  adult 
is      represented 
by  Fig.  224. 

The  painted 
beauty,  Vanessa 
himtera  (  V.  hun'- 
te-rci). — The  up- 
per surface  of 
this  butterfly  is 
represented  by 
Fig.  225;  on  the  lower  surface  there  are  two  eye- 
like spots  on  each  hind  wing.     The  larva  feeds  on 

everlasting  {Gna- 
phalinni)  and  allied 
plants. 

The  cosmopoli- 
tan butterfly,  Va- 
nessa car  did  ( V.  car"^ 
du-i). — This  butter- 
fly resembles  the 
preceding  very 

closely  in  color  and 
markings,  but  can  be  distinguished  by  the  fact  that 
on  the  lower  surface  of  each   hind  wing  there  is  a 


Fig.  224,— The  red  admiral. 


Fig.  225.— The  painted  beauty. 


252 


INSECT    LIFE. 


submarginal  row  of  four  or  five  e3'elike  spots.     The 

larva  feeds  on  thistles  and  allied  plants.  This  but- 
terfly is  distributed 
over  the  greater  part 
of  the  world. 

The  American 
tortoise-shell,  Aglais 
milberti  {Ag'lais  uiil- 
ber'tt). — The  larvae  of 
this  species  feed  up- 
on   nettle,    and     are 

gregarious  in  their  early  stages.     The  adult  can  be 

recognized  by  Fig.  226. 

The    mourning-cloak,    Euvanessa    antiopa    {Eu-va- 

nes'sa  an-ti'o-pd). — This  butterfly  (Fig.  227)  is  one  of 


Fig.  226. — The  American  tortoise-shell. 


Fig.  227. — The  mourning-cloak, 

the  first  to  be  seen  in  the  spring,  as  it  hibernates  in 
the  adult  state.  The  larvse  live  on  willow,  elm,  pop- 
lar, and  redbud  ;  they  are  gregarious,  and  often 
strip  large  branches  of  their  leaves. 


^i.n.^ 


(BiO  ad' 


Plate  XVII.— BUTTERFLIES. 

FIGURE 

1.  The  Blue-eyed  Grayling,  Cercyonis  alope.     This  is  one  of  the 

Meadow-browns.     See  page  253. 

2.  The  Violet-tip,  Polygonia  interrogationis.     The  larva  feeds  on 

hop,  elm,  and  nettle. 

3.  The  Spring  Azure,  Cyaniris pseudargiolus. 

4.  The  Tailed  Blue,  Everes  coniyntas. 

5.  The  American  Copper,  Heodes  hypophla:as. 

6.  The  Gray  Hair-streak,   Uranotes  melinus. 


Plate  XVII. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


253 


Fig.  228. — The  compton-tortoise. 


The  compton-tortoise,  Eugonia  j-album  {Eu-go'ni-a 
J-al'bum). — The  upper  surface  of  this  species  is  repre- 
sented by  Fig-. 
228  ;  on  the 
lower  surface 
of  the  hind 
wings  there  is 
a  small  L- 
shaped  silvery 
bar. 

There  are 
several  com- 
mon angle- 
wing-  butter- 
flies that  resemble  the  preceding  species  in  having  a 
metallic  spot  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  hind  wings, 
but   differ  in   having  the    inner   margin   of  the  fore 

wings  roundly  notched 
beyond  the  middle. 
These  belong  to  the  ge- 
nus Polygonia  {Pol-y-go'- 
ni-ci). 

The  Meadow- 
BROWNS. — There  are  sev- 
eral common  butterflies 
that  are  brown  in  color 
and  whose  markings  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  eyelike  spots.  As  these  are 
usually  confined  to  grassy  places,  they  are  called  the 
meadow-browns.  One  of  them  is  represented  by 
Fig.  229. 


Fig.  229. — A  meadow  brown. 


254 


INSECT   LIFE. 


THE    BUTTERFLY.'*' 

Leafless,  stemless,  floating  flower,     - 

From  a  rainbow's  scattered  bower. 

Like  a  bubble  of  the  air 

Blown  by  fairies,  tell  me  where 

Seed  or  scion  I  may  find 

Bearing  blossoms  of  thy  kind. —  JoJm  B.  Tabb. 

THE    BEES,    WASPS,    AND    DIGGER-WASPS. 

Throughout  the  summer  and  autumn  the  bees, 
wasps,  and  digger-wasps  abound  on  the  blossoms  of 
roadside  weeds.  It  requires  some  study  and  obser- 
vation to  distinguish  these  three  groups  of  insects, 
but  the  pupils  should  learn  to  do  so.  Specimens  of 
several  species  of  each  of  these  groups  should  be  col- 
lected, properly  labeled,  and  placed  in  the  collection. 
All  of  these  belong  to  the  order  Hymenoptera. 


THE    BEES. 

The  bees  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  H}^- 
menoptera  by  the  form  of  the  basal  segment  of  the 

hind  tarsi  (Fig.  230,  c). 
This  segment  is  more  or 
less  dilated,  flattened, 
usually  hairy,  and  bears 
an  apparatus  for  collect- 
ing and  carrying  pollen. 
In  some  bees,  however 
— those  that  do  not  make 

Fig.  230.— Legs  of  insects:  a,  v^asp  ;  3,     nCStS  for  thcmSClveS,  but 
ichneumon-fly ;    c,   bee ;    /,  trochan-    i  i      .  .  , 

ter;    ;«,  metatarsus.  lay     their      CggS      m      the 


*  From  Poems  by  John  B.  Tabb,  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Copeland 
and  Day. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


255 


nests  of  other  bees — this  segment  is  narrower,  and 
is  not  furnished  with  organs  for  collecting  and  car- 
rying pollen. 

Some  bees  are  solitary — that  is,  each  female  makes 
a  nest  for  her  own  young.  Several  kinds  of  these 
will  be  described  later.  Here  mention  will  be  made 
only  of  the  social  bees — those  kinds  in  which  a  large 
number  of  individuals  work  together  to  make  a 
common  nest.  Of  these  there  exist  in  this  country 
the  honey-bee  and  various  species  of  bumblebees. 
These  belong  to  the  family  ApiD/E  (A'pi-dae). 

The  Honey-bee. — The  honey-bees  are  constant 
visitors  of  roadside  blossoms ;  here  they  are  intently 
busy  probing  rapidly  flower  after  flower  as  if  they 
had  not  a  moment  to  lose.  Some  amass  great  loads 
of  yellow  pollen  on  their  hind  legs,  while  others 
think  only  of  gathering  nectar.  Some  of  them  are 
plebeian  black  bees,  while  others  bear  the  yellow 
bands  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen,  characteristic  of 
the  more  aristocratic  Italian  blood.  The  bees  never 
seem  satisfied  with  the  yield  of  nectar ;  they  drain  a 
few  florets  on  a  spray  of  blossoms,  and  then,  as  if 
hoping  to  find  a  larger  crop,  they  fly  to  another,  only 
to  repeat  the  operation  a  moment  later. 

As  there  are  many  special  books  on  the  honey- 
bee, we  will  not  take  the  space  to  describe  here  the 
habits  of  this  wonderful  species.  The  best  way  to 
study  it  is  to  spend  some  time  in  an  apiary  with  a 
practical  beekeeper,  and  then  continue  the  study  by 
means  of  an  observation  hive,  which  can  be  obtained 
of  most  dealers  in  beekeepers'  supplies.  Such  a 
hive  can  be  placed  in  a  schoolroom  with  its  entrance 
at  a  window,  and  so  arranged  that  the  bees  can  not 
18 


256  INSECT   LIFE. 

enter  the  room,  but  admitting  of  free  examination  of 
the  operations  of  the  bees  through  the  glass  sides  of 
the  hive. 

BEES.* 

Bees  don't  care  about  the  snow ; 
I  can  tell  you  why  that's  so : 

Once  I  caught  a  little  bee 

Who  was  much  too  warm  for  m.e  ! 

Frank  Dempster  Sherman. 

The  Bumblebees. — The  chimsy,  blundering 
bumblebees  are  one  of  the  most  characteristic  fea- 
tures of  roadside  life.  There  are  many  kinds  of  them  ; 
more  than  fifty  species  have  been  described  from 
North  America  alone. 

With  the  bumblebees  as  with  the  honey-bee  and 
with  other  social  Hymenoptera,  there  are  three 
forms  of  individuals  in  each  species — the  males  or 
drones,  the  females  or  queens,  and  the  workers.  In 
the  spring  and  early  summer  only  queens  are  found ; 
these  are  larger  than  the  other  two  forms.  A  little 
later  in  the  season  the  workers  appear.  There  is  a 
great  variation  in  size  of  the  workers  of  some  species, 
but  usually  they  can  be  easily  distinguished  from  the 
queens  by  their  smaller  size.  The  males  or  drones 
are  developed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  summer. 
They  resemble  the  workers  in  size,  but  differ  in  that 
the  pollen  baskets  of  the  tibias  of  the  hind  legs  are 
imperfectly  developed.  The  fringe  of  hairs  is  not  so 
long  as  in  the  workers,  and  there  are  scattered  hairs 
over  the  surface  of  the  tibia  within  the  fringes. 

*  From  Little-Folk  Lyrics,  by  permission  of  Messrs.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 


ROADSIDE   LIFE.  25/ 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  summer  the  pupils  should 
collect  the  three  forms  of  some  of  the  more  common 
species  of  bumblebees. 

The  nests  of  bumblebees  are  made  in  deserted 
mouse-nests.  In  early  spring  a  queen  finds  a  nest  in 
which  a  mouse  has  passed  the  winter,  and  places 
within  it  a  ball  of  pollen,  upon  which  she  lays  some 
eggs.  As  soon  as  the  larvse  hatch  they  eat  into  the 
pollen  mass  in  all  directions  and,  when  full-grown, 
make  for  themselves  silken  cocoons  and  change  to 
pupae.  These  cocoons  the  old  bees  strengthen  with 
wax,  and  after  the  young  bees  vacate  them  they  are 
used  as  storing  cells  for  honey.  This  explains  the 
irregularity  of  the  bumblebee-comb.  The  first 
broods  of  the  season  are  workers,  and  relieve  the 
queen  of  all  duties  except  laying  the  eggs.  Later  in 
the  summer  males  and  young  queens  appear.  In  the 
autumn  the  colony  breaks  up,  and  all  of  the  bees  ex- 
cept the  young  queens  perish.  These  crawl  away  in- 
to some  protected  place  and  pass  the  winter.  In  the 
spring  each  queen  that  has  survived  the  winter  founds 
a  new  colony,  performing,  until  a  brood  of  workers 
has  been  developed,  both  the  duties  of  queen  and  of 
worker. 


Seraglio  of  the  Sultan  Bee  ! 

I  listen  at  the  waxen  door, 
And  hear  the  zithern's  melody 

And  sound  of  dancing  on  the  floor. 

Frank  Dempster  Shertnan. 


*  From   Lyrics   for   a   Lute,  by   permission    of  Messrs.    Houghton 
Mifiain  &  Co. 


258 


INSECT   LIFE. 


THE    WASPS. 

Many  kinds  of  wasps  and  wasplike  insects  can  be 
found  on  roadside  flowers.  The  true  wasps  can  be 
distinguished  from  the  wasplike  insects  by  the  fact 
that  when  at  rest  they  fold  their  wings  lengthwise 
like  a  fan.     Collect  specimens  of  true  wasps. 

As  with  the  bees,  some  of  the  true  wasps  are  soli- 
tary, while  other  species  are  social. 

The  Solitary  Wasps. — The  different  species  of 
solitary  wasps  vary  greatly  in  habits.  Some  are  min- 
ers, digging  tunnels  in  the  earth  ;  some  are  carpenters, 
cutting  tubular  nests  in  wood,  and  showing  a  mason's 
skill  by  partitioning  their  tunnels  off  into  cells  with 
mud  ;  while  others  are  masons  pure  and  simple,  build- 
ing oval  or  globular  mud-nests,  which  they  fasten  to 
twigs  of  trees,  the  sides  of  buildings,  or  to  other  ob- 
jects. 


Fig.  231. — Eumenes  fraternus  and  its  nest. 


The  solitary  wasps  constitute  the  family  Eumeni- 
D^  (Eu-men'i-dse).  In  this  family  the  tibiae  of  the  mid- 
dle legs  bear  a  single  terminal  spur,  and  the  tarsal 
claws  are  armed  with  a  tooth.     A  common  represen- 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


259 


tative  of  the  family  is  Eumejies  f rat  emus  {En!  me-nes  f ra- 
ter'mis),  which  makes  a  neat  little  nest,  appearing  like 
a  miniature  water-jug-,  attached  to  a  twig  (Fig.  231). 

The  Social  Wasps. — The  social  wasps  are  the 
builders  of  the  well-known  paper  nests.  There  are 
two  types  of  these 
nests.  In  one  the 
nest  consists  of  a 
single  comb,  sus- 
pended by  a  pe- 
duncle, and  is  not 
inclosed  by  an  en- 
velope (Fig.  232). 
The  wasps  that  build  nests  of  this  form  belong  to  the 
genus  Polistes  (Po-lis'tes\  In  this  genus  the  abdomen 
is  long  and  spindle-shaped  (Fig.  233).  The  species 
are  black,  ringed  with 
yellow,  or  are  brown- 
ish. 

In  the  other  type 
of  nest  there  are  sev- 
eral combs   when  the 


Fig.  232.— Nest  of  Polistes. 


Fig.  22,2>-— Polistes. 


Fig.  234.— Nest  of  Vespa. 


nest  is  completed,  and  all  are  inclosed  by  a  spherical 
paper  envelope  (Fig.  234).     These  nests  are  made  by 


26o 


INSECT   LIFE. 


wasps  of  the  genus  Vespa,  which  are  commonly  known 
as  yellow-jackets,  and  as  hornets.  With  these  insects 
the  body  is  comparatively  short  and  stout  (Fig.  235), 
and  is  black,  spotted  and  banded  with  yellowish  white. 
Some  species  of  Vespa  attach  their  nests  to  build- 
ino-s  or  to  the  branches  of  shrubs  and  trees.  Such 
nests  are  made  of  a  gray  paper  com- 
posed of  fibers  of  weather-worn  wood, 
which  the  w^asps  obtain  from  fences  and 
the  sides  of  unpainted  buildings. 

Other  species  build  their  nests  in 
holes  in  the  ground.  These  are  usually 
,,  ^  composed  of  brownish  paper  which  is 
quite  fragile,  being  composed  of  more 
or  less  decayed  wood.  Owing  to  the  fragile  nature 
of  this  paper,  the  outer  envelope  of  such  nests  con- 
sists of  many  small,  shell-like  parts  fastened  together, 
instead  of  large  sheets. 

The  social  wasps  resemble  the  bumblebees  in 
that  a  colony  exists  only  one  season ;  the  males  and 
workers  die  in  the  autumn,  the  young  queens  hiber- 
nate, and  each  starts  a  new  colony  in  the  spring,  the 
queen  at  first  performing  the  duties  of  both  queen 
and  worker.  The  social  wasps  belong  to  the  family 
Vespid^  (Ves'pi-dae). 


THE    DIGGER-WASPS. 


There  are  several  families  of  wasplike  insects 
which  have  been  classed  together  as  the  digger- 
wasps,  because  most  of  the  species  make  nests  for 
their  young  by  digging  burrows  in  the  ground  or  in 
wood.  These  insects  differ  from  the  true  wasps  in 
that  their  wings  lie  flat  above  the  body  when  at  rest, 


ROADSIDE   LIFE.  261 

and  they  differ  from  the  bees  in  not  having  the  hind 
legs  fitted  for  carrying  pollen. 

Although  the  digger-wasps  do  not  provision  their 
nests  with  pollen  or  nectar,  they  feed  on  these  sub- 
stances themselves,  and  hence  are  often  found  on 
flowers.  Many  of  them  are  also  frequently  found  in 
damp  places  collecting  mud  for  their  nests,  for  some 
species  make  their  nests  entirely  of  mud,  and  others 
that  make  burrows  in  wood  divide  these  burrows 
into  cells  by  partitions  of  mud. 

Of  those  that  build  their  nests  of  mud,  the  most 
common  are  the  thread-waisted  wasps,  so  called  on 
account  of  the  form  of  the  first  ab- 
dominal segment  (Fig.  236).     They 
make  nests  of  mud  attached  to  the 
lower  surface  of  flat  stones  or  to     fig.  236.— a  thread- 
the  ceilings  of   buildings.      These         ^aistedwasp. 
nests  usually  have  the  form  of  several  tubes  an  inch 
or  so  long  placed  side  by  side,  and  are  provisioned 
with  spiders.     The  spiders  are  not  killed,  but  stung 
until  paralyzed.     The  prey  thus  treated  remains  alive 
a  long  time,  but  is  helpless.     An  egg  is  laid  in  each 
cell  with  this  provision,  and  then  the  opening  of  the 
tube  is  sealed  up  securely.     When  the  larva  hatches 
it  finds  nicely  preserved  food  right  at  hand  sufficient 
to  nourish  it  during  its  growth.     Nests  of  other  dig- 
ger-wasps are  described  below. 

INSECTS    OF    SUMACH    AND    OTHER    PITHY    PLANTS. 

Many  bees,  wasps,  and  digger-wasps  build  their 
nests  in  dead  branches  of  sumach  and  other  pithy 
plants.  Where  sumach  grows  it  affords  the  best  op- 
portunity for  the  study  of  the  nests  of  these  insects. 


262 


INSECT   LIFE. 


If  the  reader  will  go  to  the  nearest  clump  of  sumachs 
and  break  off  a  dozen  dead  branches,  and  then  split 
them  carefully,  he  is  almost  certain  to 
find  one  or  more  such  nests.  Fig.  237 
represents  a  common  type  of  nest  found 
in  sumach. 

These  nests  are  made  by  solitary  in- 
sects— that  is,  a  single  female  working 
I'lWlillfl'i  alone  builds  a  nest  in  which  to  lay  her 
eggs.  Representatives  of  several  fam- 
ilies utilize  dead  branches  of  pithy  plants 
for  this  purpose.  In  such  places  can  be 
found  nests  of  solitary  bees,  of  solitary 
wasps,  and  of  digger-wasps. 

The  parent  insect  finds  an  entrance 
through  a  knothole  at  the  side  or  at 
the  end  of  the  branch  w^hen  the  tip  has 
been  broken  off.  She  excavates  the  pith 
for  a  considerable  distance  ;  then  she 
collects  a  quantity  of  food  and  places  it 
in  the  lower  part  of  this  tunnel,  after 
which  she  lays  an  egg  upon  it,  and 
builds  a  partition  across  the  tunnel  just 
above  the  egg  and  the  supply  of  food. 
She  repeats  this  process  until  the  tunnel 
is  divided  into  several  cells,  each  con- 
taining an  egg  and  a  quantity  of  food. 

When  the  larvse  hatch  from  these 
eggs  each  finds  in  its  cell  sufficient  food 
to  nourish  it  till  it  is  full-grown.  When 
this  stage  is  reached  the  larvas  of  some 
species  spin  cocoons  about  their  bodies,  within  which 
the  pupa  state  is  passed  ;  in  other  species  the  larvae 


Fig.  237. — Nest 
of  Trypoxylon 
Jrigidum. 


ROADSIDE  LIFE, 


263 


change  to  pupse  without  making  cocoons.  After  a 
time  the  pupse  change  to  adult  insects,  which  dig  their 
way  out  from  the  nest,  and  in  turn  build  similar  nests 
for  their  young.  In  leaving  the  nest  the  newly  devel- 
oped adults  pass  out  through  the  opening  at  the  up- 
per end.  It  follows  from  this  that  the  youngest  of 
the  brood — the  one  in  the  cell  last  made — is  able  to 
emerge  first,  each  adult  being  obliged  to  wait  till 
those  above  it  are  out  of  the  way  before  it  can  escape. 

The  nests  of  solitary  bees  can  be  recognized  by 
the  fact  that  they  are  provisioned  with  a  paste  made 
of  pollen  and  nectar  ;  and,  so  far  as  I  have  observed, 
the  partitions  in  the  nests  of  solitary  bees  are  always 
made  of  vegetable  matter.  Sometimes  the  partitions 
are  made  of  pith,  sometimes  of  chewed-up  leaves, 
and  in  the  case  of  certain  large  carpenter-bees  the 
partitions  are  built  of  small  chips  fastened  together 
in  a  spiral. 

The  nests  of  the  solitary  true  wasps  and  those  of 
the  digger-wasps  are  provisioned  with  animal  matter, 
each  species  using  a  particular  kind  of  food.  Some 
use  only  spiders  for  this  purpose,  some  plant-lice, 
some  caterpillars,  and  so  on  through  the  list.  In 
each  case  the  creatures  stored  in  the  nest  are  not 
killed,  but  are  stung  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  paralyzed. 
Here  they  lie  helpless  till  needed  as  food  by  the 
larva  that  hatches  from  the  egg  laid  with  them. 

The  solitary  wasps  and  the  digger-wasps  that 
build  their  nests  in  pithy  plants  also  agree  in  usually 
making  the  partitions  in  their  nests  of  mud.  In  fact, 
I  know  of  no  way  of  distinguishing  between  the  nests 
of  these  two  groups  of  insects  except  by  breeding  the 
adults.     This,  however,  can  be  done  easily. 


264 


INSECT    LIFE. 


its 


When  a  nest  of  any  of  these  in- 
sects is  found  containing  either  larvae 
or  pupse,  the  adults  can  be  bred 
by  carefully  closing  the  nest  and 
placing  it  in  a  breeding  cage,  or,  if  it 
is  too  long,  in  a  bag  of  Swiss  muslin. 
There  are  certain  minute  digger- 
wasps  that  do  not  need  to  remove  all 
the  pith  from  the  section  of  the 
branch  in  which  they  make  their 
nest.  These  make  winding  burrows 
in  the  pith.  Fig.  238  rep- 
resents one  of  these  nests. 
Such  nests  are  usually 
l)rovisioned  with  plant- 
lice. 

Some  of  the  wood-bur- 
rowing bees  and  wasps 
are  not  so  saving  of  their 
labor  as  those  that  bur- 
row in  pith,  but  make 
their  tunnels  in  solid 
wood.  Fig.  239  repre- 
sents the  nest  of  a  solitary 
wasp  which  was  made  in  a 
board  in  the  side  of  a 
barn.  The  contents  of 
the  cells  had  been  re- 
moved by  the  collector 
before  the  nest  came  into  our  posses- 
sion, hence  they  are  not  shown  in 
the  figure.  The  partitions  in  this 
nest  are  made  of  mud.     The  archi- 


Fig.  238. 


Fig.  239. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


265 


tect  of  it  is  pictured  in  Fig.  240.     Its  name  is  Monobia 
quadridens  (Mo-no' bia  quad'ri-dens). 

There  are  large  carpenter-bees  that  make  nests 
similar  to  that  of  Monobia,  except  that  the  partitions 
are  formed  of  bits  of  wood 
fastened  together.  These 
bees  resemble  bumblebees 
in  size  and  appearance,  but 
differ  in  having  a  dense 
brush  on  the  hind  legs  in- 
stead of  a  pollen  basket. 

T^i         V  c     .\  Fig.  240. — Mo7iobia  quadridens, 

1  he  bees  of  the  genus 
Megachile  {Meg-a-chi'le)  have  the  curious  habit  of  mak- 
ing cells  for  their  young  out  of  neatly  cut  pieces  of 
leaves,  and  on  this  account  they  are  called  leaf-cutter 
bees.  The  cells  of  the  leaf-cutter  bees  are  packed 
away  in  such  secure  places  that  one  does  not  often 
find  them,  but  it  is  a  very  easy  thing  to  find  frag- 
ments of  leaves  from  which  the  pieces  have  been  cut 
by  bees.  The  leaves  of  various  plants  are  used  for 
this  purpose,  but  rose-leaves  are  used  more  frequent- 
ly than  any  other  kind.  In  Fig.  241  there  are  repre- 
sented one  of  these  bees,  its  nest,  and  a  spray  of  rose- 
leaves  from  which  pieces  have  been  cut  by  the  bee. 

The  species  represented  here,  Megachile  acuta  (M. 
a-cu'ta),  is  a  carpenter  as  well  as  a  leaf-cutter.  It 
first  makes  a  tunnel  in  wood,  often  selecting  that 
which  is  partially  decayed ;  then  it  proceeds  to  build 
a  thimble-shaped  tube  at  the  bottom  of  this  tunnel. 
For  this  purpose  it  cuts  from  the  leaves  oblong 
pieces,  each  of  which  forms  a  part  of  a  side  and  the 
bottom  of  the  thimble-shaped  tube.  Two  such 
pieces  had  been  cut  from  the  lower  leaf  on  the  left 


266 


INSECT    LIFE. 


side  of  the  spray  figured  here.  When  the  thimble- 
shaped  tube  is  completed,  the  bee  partially  fills  it 
with  a  paste  of  pollen  and  nectar,  and  then  places  an 
egg  upon  the  supply  of  food.  She  then  cuts  several 
circular  pieces  of  leaves,  the  diameter  of  which  is  a 


Fig.  24T. — A  leaf-cutter  bee,  nest,  and  rose-leaves  cut  by  the  bee. 

little  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  tube,  and  forces 
them  into  the  open  end  of  it,  thus  making  a  tightly 
fitting  plug ;  three  of  these  circular  pieces  had  been 
cut  from  the  spray  figured.  Usually  several  cells  of 
this  kind  are  placed  end  to  end  in  a  burrow,  and 
sometimes  many  bees  will  build  their  nests  near  to- 
gether in  the  same  piece  of  wood. 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


267 


The  leaf-cutter  bees  do  not  always  bore  tunnels  in 
which  to  place  their  cells.  We  have  found  these 
cells  in  a  crack  between  shingles  on  a  roof,  in  the 
cavity  of  a  large  branch  of  sumach,  beneath  stones 
lying  on  the  ground,  and,  in  Florida,  in  the  tubular 
leaves  of  the  pitcher-plant. 

Some  species  of  bees  make  nests  similar  to  those 
of  the  leaf-cutter  bees,  except  that  the  cells  are 
formed  of  pieces  of  petals  of  flowers.  The  petals  of 
Pelargonium  are  often  used  for  this  purpose. 


THE    CLIFF-DWELLERS. 

There  are  many  bees,  wasps,  and  digger-wasps 
that  build  their  nests  in  the  sides  of  cliffs,  reminding 
one  of  the  habitations  built 
by  certain  communities  of 
Indians  in  the  far  West. 
The  insect  cliff  -  dwellers 
prefer  sandy  cliffs,  and  it 
often  happens  that  a  sand- 
bank becomes  so  thickly 
studded  with  the  burrows 
of  these  insects  that  it  looks 
as  if  it  had  been  used  as  a 
target  for  practice  with  a 
shotgun. 

The  most  abundant  of 
these  cliff-dwellers  are  the 
minute  bees  belonging  to  the  genus  Halictus  {Ha-lic'- 
tus).  These  are  the  smallest  of  all  our  bees,  measur- 
ing only  from  one  tenth  to  three  tenths  of  an  inch  in 
length.  Great  numbers  of  them  can  be  seen  during 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  day,  flying  back  and  forth, 


268  INSECT    LIFE. 

close  to  the  face  of  the  cliffs  inhabited  by  them. 
The  openings  to  their  burrows  are  just  large  enough 
for  a  bee  to  enter,  but  a  short  distance  from  the  open- 
ing the  burrow  is  enlarged  so  that  a  bee  can  turn 
about  in  it  easily.  This  feature  and  the  small  size  of 
the  opening  distinguish  the  burrows  of  Halictus  from 
those  of  other  common  cliff-dwellers.  In  the  sides  of 
this  comparatively  large  burrow  there  are  many 
small  openings  leading  into  cells,  in  each  of  which  is 
placed  a  supply  of  food  and  an  ^^g.  The  walls  of 
these  cells  are  glazed  like  the  surface  of  pottery.  It 
is  said  that  several  females  unite  in  making  the  larger 
burrow,  after  which  each  female  makes  passages  ex- 
tending sidewise  from  this  main  burrow  or  public 
corridor  to  her  own  cells.  If  this  is  true  a  cliff  in- 
habited by  Halictus  may  be  compared  to  a  city  com- 
posed of  apartment  houses. 

Certain  cliff-dwelling  bees,  which  are  much  larger 
than  Halictus,  resembling  the  honey-bee  in  size,  con- 
ceal the  entrance  to  their  burrows  by  building  over 
each  a  tube  which  is  bent  downward. 

Some  solitary  wasps  and  many  species  of  digger- 
wasps  are  cliff-dwellers.  The  nests  of  these  can  be 
recognized  by  the  fact  that  they  are  provisioned  with 
insects  or  spiders. 

THE    MINERS    OF    THE    PLAINS. 

Although  the  sides  of  sandy  cliffs  afford  the  min- 
ing insects  the  best  of  conditions  for  building  their 
nests,  both  as  regards  the  economy  of  labor  and  in 
protection  from  drenching  rains,  there  are  many  spe- 
cies that  prefer  to  mine  in  level  ground.  The  fol- 
lowing are  among  the  more  common  of  these : — 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


269 


The  ^Mining-bees. — The  bees  of  the  genus  An- 
drena  {An-dre  no)  probably  attract  attention  more 
frequently  than  any  other  mining-bees.  Some  of  the 
species  nearly  or  quite  equal  in  size  the  workers  of 
the  honey-bee.  They  build  their  nests  in  grassy 
fields,  sinking  a  perpendicular  shaft  with  branches 
leading  sidewise  to  the  cells.  The  main  shaft  some- 
times extends  to  a  depth  of  more  than  one  foot. 
These  bees,  though  strictly  solitary — each  female 
building  her  own  nest — frequently  build  their  nests 
near  together,  forming  large  villages.  Sometimes  a 
village,  or  we  might  say  a  city,  of  this  kind,  covering 
only  one  square  rod  of  ground,  will  include  several 
thousand  nests. 

The  Mining  Digger-wasps. — Various  digger- 
wasps  build  their  nests  in  level  ground,  especially  in 
sandy  places.  One  family  of  these  are  known  as  the 
spider-wasps,  because  they  provision 
their  nests  with  spiders.  The  spider- 
wasps  belong  to  the  family  POMPILID^E 
(Pom-pil'i-dse)  ;  they  are  slender  in 
form,  with  long  legs  (Fig.  242),  and  are 
usually  black  with    dusky  reddish  or  '  ^^^' 

black  wings  ;  sometimes  they  are  variegated  with  red 
or  orange.  They  are  common  everywhere  through- 
out our  country,  and  are  often  seen  on  bright,  hot 
days  running  about  with  a  jerky  step  and  constantly 
twinkling  wings ;  even  when  at  rest  the  wings  are 
frequently  twitched.  It  is  a  common  thing  also  to 
see  these  digger-wasps  running  backward,  dragging 
their  prey  after  them.  A  very  large  species  which 
occurs  in  the  Southwest  is  known  as  the  tarantula- 
hawk,  because  it  stores  its  burrows  with  tarantulas. 


270 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Another  very  large  digger-wasp  which  frequently 
attracts  attention  is  represented  by  Fig.  243.     This 

is  the  cicada- 
killer,  Spheci- 
us  speciosiis 
{SpJie'ci-usspe- 
ci-o  siis).  It  is 
black,  some- 
times of  a 
rusty  color, 
and  has  the 
abdomen 

Yxo.^^^.-Spheciusspeciosus.  banded    with 

yellow.     It  digs   burrows  in  the   earth  two  feet  or 
more  in  depth,  and  provisions  each  with  a  cicada. 

The  Tiger-beetles. — The  tiger-beetles  are  long- 
legged,  agile  beetles,  which  abound  on  bright,  hot 
days  in  dusty  roads,  in  beaten  paths,  and  on  the 
shores  of  streams.  Fig.  244  represents  a  common 
species.  Their  popular  name  was  suggested  by  their 
predaceous  habits  and  the  stripes  with  which  many 
species  are  marked.  They  can  run  swiftly  and  fly 
well.  When  approached  by  a  passer-by, 
they  remain  quiet  but  alert  till  nearly 
reached  ;  then  like  a  flash  they  fly  up  and 
away,  but  alight  after  going  a  few  rods. 
Before  alighting  they  always  turn  so  as  to 
face  the  approaching  person  and  be  able 
to  watch  his  movements. 

These  beetles  dig  sloping  burrows  in 
the  earth  into  which  they  retreat  in  stormy  or  cold 
weather. 

The  larvas  of  the  tigfer-beetles  live  in  vertical  bur- 


FiG.  244. 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


271 


rows,  which  can  be  easily  recognized  after  one  has 
learned  their  characteristic  appearance.  These  bur- 
rows abound  in  sandy  places,  in  beaten  paths,  and 
in  plowed  fields  that  have  become  dry  and  hard. 
The  larger  ones,  those  occupied  by  full-grown  larvse, 
measure  about  one  sixth  inch  in  diameter,  and  often 
extend  a  foot  or  more  in  depth.  The  sides  are 
smooth  ;  the  entrance  to  each  is  very  regular  in  out- 
line, and  without  any  loose  dirt  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground  near  it,  as  is  usually  the  case  with 
somewhat  similar  burrows  made  by  ants. 

Fig.  245  represents  a  larva  of  a  tiger- 
beetle.  When  watching  for  its  prey,  the 
larva  rests  perfectly  still  at  the  mouth  of 
its  burrow.  Its  dirt-colored  head  is  bent 
at  right  angles  to  its  lighter-colored  body 
and  makes  a  neat  plug  to  the  opening  of  ^"  ^'*^* 
the  hole.  Its  rapacious  jaws  extend  upward,  wide 
open,  ready  to  seize  the  first  unwary  insect  that 
walks  over  this  living  trap.  On  the  fifth  segment  of 
the  abdomen  there  is  a  hump,  and  on  this  hump  are 
two  hooks  curved  forward.  This  is  an  arrangement 
by  which  the  little  rascal  can  hold  back  and  keep 
from  being  jerked  out  of  its  hole  when  it  gets  some 
large  insect  by  the  leg,  and  by  which  it  can  drag  its 
struggling  prey  down  into  its  lair,  where  it  may  eat 
it  at  leisure. 

The  holes  of   the  tiger-beetle  larvse  are  always 

open  when  found,  the  larvae  being  frightened  away 

by  the  approach  of  the  observer.     But  sit  down  near 

them,    and    watch   quietly,    and    soon   they    will   be 

plugged  by  dirt-colored  heads.     Each  passer-by  will 

cause  the  cautious  larvae  to  retreat ;  but  they  will  re- 
19 


272 


INSECT   LIFE. 


turn  in  a  few  minutes  to  their  position  of  patient 
watchfulness,  and  here  they  wait  like  a  still  fisher- 
man on  a  log. 

The  habits  of  these  larvse  can  be  observed  in  a 
schoolroom  in  the  following  manner: — 

1.  Take  a  box  about  eight  inches  deep,  and  half 
fill  it  with  sand  or  fine  earth,  and  pour  some  water 
on  the  soil  so  that  it  shall  become  packed  firmly. 

2.  Collect  several  tiger-beetle  larvae.  In  doing 
this  put  a  stalk  down  the  burrow  so  that  it  shall  not 
become  filled  with  dirt,  and  thus  lost  while  you  are 
digging  the  larva  out.  Put  each  larva  collected  in  a 
single  vial,  so  that  they  can  not  injure  each  other. 

3.  With  a  slender  stick  or  a  slate  pencil  make 
holes  in  the  soil  in  your  box,  one  or  two  inches  deep 

and  about  as  wide  as  burrows  of   tiger- 
beetle  larvas,  and  put  a  larva  in  each. 

4.  Observe  the  way  in  which  the  lar- 
vse  deepen  these  holes,  and  fit  them  for 
their  use. 

5.  When  the  larvas  have  become  well 
established  in  their  new  burrows,  scatter 
sugar  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  so  as  to 
attract  flies. 

6.  Make  notes  on  the  habits  of  tiger- 
beetle  larvas,  and  write  an  account  of 
them. 

INSECTS    OF    GOLDENROD. 

In  late  summer  and  in  the  autumn  the 
yellow  blossoms  of  the  goldenrod  attract 
swarms  of  insects  of  various  kinds  ;  at 
this  season  there  is  no  better  field  for  the  collector  than 
the  clumps  of  this  plant  growing  in  the  fence  corners. 


Fig.  246. 
Goldenrod, 
Solidago. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


273 


Fig.  247. 


The  Soldier-beetles. — The  most  abundant  of 
the  goldenrod  visitors  are  the  soldier-beetles ;  so- 
called  on  account  of  the  bright  colors  of 
their  yellow  and  black  uniforms  (Fig.  247). 
Sometimes  these  beetles  occur  in  such 
great  numbers  on  the  goldenrod  blossoms 
as  to  bend  the  plant  down  by  their 
weight.  Here  they  are  in  constant  mo- 
tion, crawling  over  the  plant  and  over 
each  other.  But  they  can  i\y  readily,  and 
do  so  often,  passing  from  cluster  to  cluster.  These 
beetles  belong  to  the  genus  Chauliognathiis  [Chaid-i- 
og'na-thus),  of  the  firefly  family,  Lampyrid^  (Lam- 
pyr'i-d^e). 

The  Locust -borer.  —  Associated 
with  the  soldier  beetles  we  often  find 
one  with  his  back  covered  with  yellow 
stripes  like  the  chevron  on  the  sleeves  of 
a  sergeant  (Fig.  248).  This  is  the  locust- 
borer,  Cyllene  robmicE{Cyl-le'ne  ro-bin' i-cB). 
It  belongs  to  the  family  of  long-horned 
beetles. 

The   Blister-beetles. — Blister-beetles  are   also 
frequently  found  on  the  flowers  of  goldenrod.     With 
these  the   body  is  comparatively  soft ;    the 
head  is  broad,  and  abruptly  narrowed  into 
a  neck,  and  the  prothorax  is  narrower  than 
the    wing -covers    (Fig.    249).       There    are 
many  kinds  of  blister-beetles ;    they  consti- 
tute the  family  Meloid^  (Me-lo'i-dae).  They 
are  called  blister-beetles  because  the  dried      '*^'  ^^^' 
bodies  of  certain  species  are  used  for  making  blister 
plasters. 


Fig.  248. 


274 


INSECT    LIFE. 


The  Ambush-bug. — There  is  a  greenish  bug,  with 
very  strong  fore  legs  and  a  broadly  expanded  abdo- 
men (Fig.  250),  which  conceals  itself  in  the  flowers 
of  goldenrod  and  in  other  flowers.  This  is  the  am- 
bush-bug ;  it  rests  quietly  among  the  flowers 
until  some  nectar-loving  insect  comes  with- 
in its  reach,  when  the  visitor  is  seized  and 
.destroyed.     The  ambush-bus:  can  overcome 

Fig.  250.      .  •'  ,     ,  1  .        ir       T 

insects  much  larger  than  itseli.  Its  name  is 
Phymata  zuolffii  {PJiy-ma'ta  wolf'fi-i),  and  it  belongs 
to  the  family  Phymatid^f:  (Phy-mat'i-dse). 

The  Goldenrod  Galls. — One  of  the  most 
familiar  of  abnormal  growths  on  plants  is  a  ball-like 
enlargement  of  the  stem  of  goldenrod  (Fig.  251). 
This  is  caused  by  a  maggot  which  lives  within  it, 
and  which  develops  into  a  pretty  fly  with  banded 
wings.  The  name  of  the  fly  is 
Try  pet  a  solidaginis  ( Try-pe'ta  sol- 
i-dag'i-7tis),  and  its  gall  is  desig- 
nated as  the  round  goldenrod 
gall. 

There  is  another  gall  on  the 
stem  of  goldenrod  which  is  yig.  zsT.— The  rou^  gold- 
more  elongate  and  is  hollow.  enrodgaii. 
This  is  known  as  the  elliptical  goldenrod  gall ;  it  is 
represented  in  the  lower  part  of  Fig.  246.  This  gall 
is  made  by  the  larva  of  a  Tineid  moth,  Gelechia  gallcE- 
solidagmis  {Ge-le'-chi-a  gallce-sol-i-dag' i-nis\ 

Collect   specimens   of    these   galls,   and,   placing 
them  in  breeding-cages,  rear  the  adult  insects. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE.  275 

ANTS. 

The  most  abundant  of  all  roadside  insects  are  the 
ants.  Of  these  there  are  many  kinds,  each  differing- 
more  or  less  from  the  others  in  appearance  and  in 
habits,  but  the  following  generalizations  can  be 
made : — 

All  ants  are  social,  many  individuals  working 
together  to  make  a  common  nest.  As  with  the 
social  bees  and  with  the  social  wasps,  each  colony  of 
ants  consists  of  three  classes  of  individuals :  males, 
females  or  queens,  and  workers.  The  males  and  fe- 
males are  winged  ;  the  workers  are  wingless.  The 
worker  class  is  the  one  most  often  observed,  this  class 
constituting  the  greater  number  of  individuals  found 
in  any  nest.  In  fact,  it  is  only  during  a  part  of  the 
year  that  winged  forms  can  be  found  in  the  nests, 
although  wingless  queens  are  constantly  present. 

Often  in  warm  summer  afternoons  the  air  will 
seem  to  be  filled  with  countless  thousands  of  flying 
ants.  Their  moving  wings  divide  the  sun's  rays  into 
rainbow  flashes  as  they  rise  or  fall,  a  silent,  onward- 
moving  host.  This  is  the  wedding  journey  of  the 
male  and  female  ants,  which  have  come  from  many 
communities  and  have  taken  flight  together.  But 
soon  the  journey  is  over  and  they  drop  to  earth, 
where  the  males  soon  die  ;  but  the  females  tear  off 
their  own  wings,  having  no  further  use  for  them,  and 
set  about  to  find  places  to  lay  their  eggs.  Some- 
times a  female  starts  a  new  colony  ;  in  other  cases 
she  is  found  by  some  workers  of  her  own  species  and 
adopted  as  their  queen. 

The  term  queen,  as  applied  to  the  individual  at 


2'je  INSECT    LIFE. 

the  head  of  a  colony  of  ants,  is  a  misnomer,  for  ^mong 
social  insects  the  queens  do  not  rule ;  they  are 
merely  the  mothers  of  their  colonies.  The  queen 
ant  is  not  jealous,  like  the  queen  bee,  but  may  live  in 
peace  in  the  same  dwelling  with  several  other  queens. 
She  is  always  an  object  of  extreme  devotion  to  her 
attendants,  who  feed  her  and  care  for  her  eggs  as 
soon  as  she  lays  them. 

The  larvae  of  ants  are  white  and  legless;  most 
species  spin  cocoons  when  ready  to  pupate,  but  some 
do  not.  The  oblong,  egg-shaped  bodies  which  may 
be  seen  in  any  ant's  nest,  and  which  are  often  mis- 
taken by  the  careless  observer  for  eggs,  are  these 
cocoons.  The  eggs  are  so  small  that  they  escape 
observation  unless  careful  search  is  made  for  them. 
The  larvae  are  efficiently  cared  for  by  the  workers, 
who  carry  them  about  and  put  them  in  the  warmer 
parts  of  the  nest  and  feed  them.  When  the  adults 
issue  from  their  cocoons  their  nurses  help  them  out 
carefully  ;  and  they  unfold  the  legs  and  smooth  out 
the  wings  of  new-fiedged  royalty  with  tenderest  solici- 
tude. The  workers  are  by  far  the  most  interesting 
portion  of  the  ant  colony,  as  they  do  all  the  work — 
feed  the  colony,  build  and  defend  the  nests,  care  for 
the  young  and  for  the  stock,  and  carry  on  the  wars. 
The  workers  are  undeveloped  females,  which  very 
rarely  lay  eggs,  and  as  the  eggs  of  workers  always 
develop  into  males,  the  presence  of  a  queen  is  neces- 
sary for  the  perpetuation  of  the  life  of  a  colony.  For 
this  reason,  as  the  queens  grow  old  the  workers  find 
young  queens  at  the  swarming  season,  bring  them 
into  their  nests,  and  adopt  them  as  successors  to  the 
old  queens. 


ROADSIDE   LIFE.  277 

There  are  many  forms  of  ants'  nests,  but  each 
species  builds  the  same  sort.  Sometimes  the  nest  is 
a  simple  tunnel  in  the  earth,  sometimes  a  large  mound 
with  tunnels  and  galleries  extending  many  feet  under 
ground,  and  some  species  live  in  decayed  trees.  In 
the  tropics  a  greater  variety  of  these  structures  occur 
than  in  our  country.  Some  colonies  own  several 
mounds.  One  colony  of  one  species  has  been  known 
to  have  two  hundred  mounds,  covering  several  hun- 
dred square  yards.  Ants  are  also  very  good  road- 
makers,  sometimes  making  clean,  beaten  paths,  and 
sometimes  working  out  covered  ways  under  rubbish. 

As  to  their  food,  ants  are  general  feeders,  eating 
animal  food  and  also  sweet  substances,  like  the  juice 
of  fruit  and  sugar ;  and  they  are  also  very  fond  of 
the  honey-dew  given  off  by  aphids,  and  the  ants  re- 
gard these  aphids  as  their  milch-cows.  An  ant  will 
walk  up  to  an  aphid  and  stroke  its  back  with  its 
antennse,  and  immediately  the  pleased  aphid  gives 
forth  a  drop  of  sweet  fluid,  which  the  ant  at  once 
drinks  up.  The  ants  take  very  good  care  of  their 
cattle,  and  will  carry  them  to  new  pastures  if  the  old 
ones  dry  up.  They  also  carry  the  aphid-eggs  into 
their  nests,  and  keep  them  sheltered  during  the  win- 
ter, and  then  carry  the  young  plant-lice  out  and  put 
them  on  plants  in  the  spring.  When  ants  are  seen 
going  up  and  down  the  trunks  of  trees  it  is  safe  to 
suppose  they  are  attending  aphids.  They  also  care 
similarly  for  some  other  honey-giving  insects,  as  cer- 
tain bark-lice  {Coccidce)  and  tree-hoppers  {MembracidcE). 

The  Habits  of  Ants  {Field  Work). — Make  a  col- 
lection of  ants  representing  as  many  species  as  practi- 
cable.    Give  each  species  a  number,  and  make  notes 


278 


INSECT    LIFE. 


on   the  kind  of   nest  made  by  each.      The  smaller 
specimens  should  be  mounted  on  cardboard  points. 

Look  for  ant-nests  under  stones  lying  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  and  when  one  is  found  containing 
eggs,  larvse,  pupae,  and  adults,  collect  a  set  of  speci- 
mens illustrating  the  transformations  of  the  species. 

Find  a  shrub  or  tree  upon  the  trunk  of  which  ants 
are  passing  up  and  down.  Watch  some  of  the  ants 
that  are  going  up  and  determine  the  object  of  their 
journey.  Follow  some  of  the  ants  that  are  passing 
down  till  they  reach  their  nest.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  ants  have  covered  ways  several  rods  in 
length  leading  from  their  nest  to  the  trees  that  they 
frequent.  If  such  a  road  be  found,  uncover  it  care- 
fully till  the  nest  is  reached. 

Write  an  account  of  what  you  have  learned  in  the 
field  regarding  the  habits  of  ants. 

The  Habits  of  Ants  {School  Work). — The  habits 
of  ants  can  be  studied  in  a  schoolroom  by  establish- 
ing a  colony  in  an  artificial  nest.      Such  a  nest  is 

represented  in  Fig. 
252.  It  is  similar  to 
one  devised  by  Sir 
John  Lubbock. 

Fig.  252. — An  artificial  ant-nest.  The  Drincioal 

materials  needed  for  the  construction  of  a  nest  of 
this  kind  are  two  panes  of  window-glass  ten  inches 
square,  a  sheet  of  tin  eleven  inches  square,  and  a 
piece  of  plank  one  and  one  fourth  inches  thick, 
twenty  inches  long,  and  at  least  sixteen  inches  wide. 
To  make  the  nest,  proceed  as  follows  :  Cut  a  tri- 
angular piece  about  one  inch  long  on  its  two  short 
sides  from  one  corner  of  one  of  the  panes  of  glass. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE. 


279 


From  the  sheet  of  tin  make  a  tray  three  eighths  of 
an  inch  in  depth.  This  tray  will  be  a  little  wider 
than  the  panes  of  glass  and  will  contain  them  easily. 
On  the  upper  side  of  the  plank  a  short  distance  from 
the  edge,  cut  a  deep  furrow.  This  plank  is  to  form 
the  base  of  the  nest,  and  the  furrow  is  to  serve  as  a 
moat,  which,  is  to  be  kept  filled  with  water,  in  order 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  ants.  It  is  necessary  to 
paint  the  base  with  several  coats  of  paint  to  protect  it 
from  water  and  thus  prevent  its  warping. 

To  prepare  the  nest  for  use,  place  the  tin  tray  on 
the  base,  put  in  the  tray  the  square  pane  of  glass,  lay 
on  the  edges  of  the  glass  four  strips  of  wood  about 
one  half  inch  wide  and  a  little  thicker  than  the  height 
of  the  ants  which  are  to  be  kept  in  the  nest,  cover 
the  glass  with  a  layer  of  fine  earth  of  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  strips  of  wood,  place  upon  this  layer  of 
earth  and  the  strips  of  wood  the  pane  of  glass  from 
which  one  corner  has  been  cut,  and  cover  the  whole 
with  a  cover  of  the  same  size  and  shape  as  the  upper 
pane  of  glass.  In  the  nest  figured  the  cover  is  made 
of  blackened  tin,  and  one  half  of  it  is  covered  by  a 
board.  This  gives  a  variation  in  temperature  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  nest  when  it  stands  in  the  sun- 
light. 

The  ants  when  established  in  the  nest  are  to  mine 
in  the  earth  between  the  two  plates  of  glass.  The 
removal  of  one  corner  from  the  upper  pane  provides 
an  opening  to  the  nest.  The  thickness  of  the  strips 
of  wood  between  the  edges  of  the  two  panes  of  glass 
determines  the  depth  of  the  layer  of  earth  in  which 
the  ants  live.  This  should  not  be  much  thicker  than 
the  ants  are  high  ;    for  if  it  is  the  ants  will  be  able 


28o  INSECT    LIFE. 

to  conceal  themselves  so  that  they  can  not  be  ob- 
served. 

The  nest  being  prepared,  the  next  step  is  to  trans- 
fer a  colony  of  ants  to  it.  The  things  needed  with 
which  to  do  this  are  a  two-quart  glass  fruit-can  or 
some  similar  vessel  that  can  be  closed  tightly,  a 
clean  vial,  and  a  garden  trowel.  With  these  in 
hand,  find  a  small  colony  of  ants,  such  as  are  com- 
mon under  stones  in  most  parts  of  the  country. 
Collect  as  many  of  the  ants  and  of  the  eggs,  larvae, 
and  pupge  as  possible,  and  put  them  in  the  fruit-can 
together  with  the  dirt  that  is  scooped  up  in  collect- 
ing them  with  the  trowel.  Search  carefully  for  the 
queen  ;  sometimes  she  is  found  immediately  beneath 
the  stone  covering  the  nest,  but  often  it  is  necessary 
to  dig  a  considerable  distance  in  order  to  find  her. 
She  can  be  recognized  by  her  large  size.  If  the 
queen  is  not  found,  empty  the  contents  of  the  can 
back  into  the  nest,  and  take  up  another  colony ; 
without  a  queen  the  experiment  will  be  a  failure. 
When  the  queen  is  found  place  her  in  the  vial  so  that 
she  shall  not  be  injured  while  being  carried  to  the 
schoolroom. 

Having  obtained  a  queen  and  a  large  part  of  her 
family  old  and  young,  return  to  the  schoolroom  and 
empty  the  contents  of  the  fruit-can  on  to  the  board 
covering  the  upper  pane  of  glass,  and  place  the  queen 
there  with  her  family.  If  much  dirt  and  rubbish  has 
been  collected  with  the  ants,  remove  some  of  it  so 
that  not  more  than  a  half  pint  of  it  remains.  When 
this  is  done  leave  the  ants  undisturbed  for  a  day  or 
two.  Of  course  the  moat  should  be  filled  with  water 
so  that  they  can  not  escape. 


ROADSIDE    LIFE.  28 1 

Usually  within  twenty-four  hours  the  ants  will 
find  the  opening  leading  into  the  space  between  the 
two  panes  of  glass  and  will  make  a  mine  into  the 
layer  of  earth  which  is  there,  and  will  remove  their 
queen  and  young  to  this  place.  This  process  can  be 
hastened  by  gradually  removing  the  dirt  placed  on 
the  cover  of  the  nest  with  the  ants. 

After  the  ants  have  made  a  nest  between  the 
panes  of  glass,  they  can  be  observed,  when  desired, 
by  merely  lifting  the  board  forming  the  cover  of  the 
nest. 

With  proper  care  a  colony  can  be  kept  in  a  nest 
of  this  kind  as  long  as  the  queen  lives,  which  may 
be  several  years.  The  food  for  the  ants  can  be 
placed  on  the  base  of  the  nest  anywhere  within  the 
moat,  and  may  consist  of  sugar,  minute  bits  of  meat, 
fruits,  etc.  With  a  little  care  the  kinds  of  food 
preferred  by  the  colony  can  be  easily  determined. 
The  pupae  of  ants,  which  can  be  collected  from 
nests  in  the  field  during  the  summer  months,  will 
be  greedily  devoured.  The  soil  in  the  nest  should 
be  kept  from  becoming  too  dry  by  putting  a  little 
water  into  one  side  of  the  tin  tray  from  time  to 
time. 

Many  suggestions  as  to  the  kinds  of  experiments 
that  can  be  tried  with  a  colony  of  ants  can  be  ob- 
tained by  reading  the  well-known  work  of  Sir  John 
Lubbock  entitled  A7its,  Bees,  and  Wasps. 

O  the  South  Wind  and  the  Sun  ! 
How  each  loved  the  other  one — 
Full  of  fancy — full  of  folly — 
Full  of  jollity  and  fun  ! 


282  INSECT   LIFE. 

How  they  romped  and  ran  about, 
Like  two  boys  when  school  is  out. 
With  glowing  face,  and  lisping  lip, 
Low  laugh,  and  lifted  shout ! 

Over  meadow-lands  they  tripped, 
Where  the  dandelions  dipped 

In  crimson  foam  of  clover-bloom. 

And  dripped  and  dripped  and  dripped ; 
And  they  clinched  the  bumble-stings, 
Gauming  honey  on  their  wings. 

And  bundling  them  in  lily-bells. 
With  maudlin  murmurings. 

And  the  humming-bird,  that  hung 

Lii<e  a  jewel  up  among 
The  tilted  honeysuckle-horns. 

They  mesmerized,  and  swung 

In  the  palpitating  air. 

Drowsed  with  odors  strange  and  rare, 
And,  with  whispered  laughter,  slipped  away 

And  left  him  hanging  there. 

And  the  golden-banded  bees. 
Droning  o'er  the  flowery  leas, 

They  bridled,  reined,  and  rode  away 
Across  the  fragrant  breeze. 
Till  in  hollow  oak  and  elm 
They  had  groomed  and  stabled  them 

In  waxen  stalls  that  oozed  with  dews 
Of  rose  and  lily-stem. 

Where  the  dusty  highway  leads. 
High  above  the  wayside  weeds 

They  sowed  the  air  with  butterflies 
Like  blooming  flower-seeds, 
Till  the  dull  grasshopper  sprung 
Half  a  man's  height  up,  and  hung 

Tranced  in  the  heat,  with  whirring  wings, 
And  sung  and  sung  and  sung  ! 


ROADSIDE   LIFE. 


283 


And  they  loitered,  hand  in  hand, 

Where  the  snipe  along  the  sand 
Of  the  river  ran  to  meet  them 

As  the  ripple  meets  the  land. 

Till  the  dragon-fly,  in  light 

Gauzy  armor,  burnished  bright, 
Came  tilting  down  the  waters 

In  a  wild,  bewildered  flight. 

James  Whitcomb  Riley. ^ 
From  Afterwhiles,  by  permission  of  the  Bowen-Merrill  Co. 


PART    II. 

THE    COLLECTION    AND    PRESERVATION 
OF   SPECIMENS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    COLLECTION    OF    SPECIMENS. 

In  order  to  study  insects  thoroughly  it  is 
necessary  to  collect  specimens.  Very 
much  can  be  learned  by  merely  watching 
insects  in  the  field,  but  if  we  are  to  study 
their  structure  and  their  classification,  we 
must  make  a  collection. 

In  doing  this  we  should  be  humane. 
It  is  not  probable  that  insects  are  as  sen- 
sitive to  pain  as  we  are,  but  there  is  no 
■  ^^^'  doubt  that  they  suffer  when  injured.  We 
should,  therefore,  handle  our  specimens  carefully,  kill 
them  without  inflicting  needless  pain,  and  destroy  no 
more  than  is  necessary  for  study.  It  is  not  merely 
the  insects  that  are  to  be  considered  in  this  matter, 
for  no  one  can  be  cruel  to  animals  without  its  having 
a  bad  effect  on  his  character. 

I.    COLLECTING    APPARATUS. 

The  first  step  in  the  collecting  of  insects  is  the 
preparation  of  collecting  apparatus.      Many  things 

284 


THE   COLLECTION    OF    SPECIMENS.  285 

have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  and  are  in  use 
by  professional  entomologists,  but  the  beginner 
needs  only  a  few  of  them.  Usually  a  collecting  out- 
fit will  consist  of  merely  a  net,  a  killing  bottle,  and  a 
few  vials  or  pill-boxes  for  bringing  home  living 
specimens.  If  one  desires  to  collect  butterflies  it  is 
well  to  add  to  this  list  a  cork-lined  collecting  box 
and  perhaps  a  vial  of  chloroform  with  a  small  brush 
fitted  in  the  cork. 

Insect  Nets. — Many  in3ects  can  be  easily  and 
safely  caught  by  hand,  but  it  is  desirable  that  some 
members  of  the  class,  and  the  more  the  better,  should 
have  insect-nets.  The  usual  form  of  an  insect  net  is 
shown  in  Fig.  253.     Such  a  net  is  made  as  follows : — 

The  ring  is  of  No.  3  galvanized  iron  wire,  and  is 
one  foot  in  diameter.  It  is  securely  fitted  into  a  light 
vvooden  handle,  which  is  three  feet  and  six  inches  in 
length.  The  ring  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  strong 
cloth — ordinary  sheeting — to  which  a  bag  of  cheese- 
cloth is  sewed.  The  strong  cloth  over  the  ring  is 
necessary  to  prevent  the  net  from  wearing  out 
cjuickly.  The  bag  of  the  net  should  be  longer  than 
its  diameter,  so  that  when  an  insect  is  caught  while 
flying  it  can  be  imprisoned  in  the  bottom  of  the  bag 
by  simply  rolling  the  handle  of  the  net.  The  bottom 
of  the  bag  should  be  rounded,  without  corners  or 
points  in  which  insects  can  lodge. 

Killing  Bottles.  —  The  specimens  collected 
should  be  killed  in  some  way  that  shall  not  mutilate 
them.  This  can  be  done  by  putting  a  few  drops  of 
chloroform,  sulphuric  ether,  or  benzene  on  cotton 
and  inclosing  it  with  the  insects  to  be  killed  in  a 
bottle  or  small  box.     But  the  most  convenient  way, 


286 


INSECT    LIFE. 


and  the  one  that  is  commonly  employed,  is  by  the 
use  of  a  cyanide  bottle.  Each  pupil,  except  very 
young  ones,  should  have  such  a  bottle.  The  bottles 
can  be  prepared,  either  by  the  teacher  or  by  a  drug- 
gist, in  the  following  manner  : — 

Take  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  holding  four  or  six 
ounces.  Put  in  this  bottle  a  piece  of  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium, about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  square,  and 
water  enough  to  cover  the  cyanide ;  and  then  im- 
mediately, before  there  is  time  for  the  cyanide  to 
dissolve,  put  enough  plaster  of  Paris  in  the  bottle  to 
entirely  soak  up  the  water.  In  this  way  the  cyanide 
will  be  firmly  cemented  in  place  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bottle.  The  bottle 
should  then  be  left  open  in  a  shady 
place  for  an  hour  to  dry,  and  then  se- 
curely corked  with  a  long  cork  and 
labeled  Poison,  after  which  it  is  ready 
for  use  (Fig.  254). 

In  using  a  cyanide  bottle  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  leave  it  open  unneces- 
sarily, lest  it  lose  its  strength.  With 
proper  care  a  bottle  will  retain  its 
strength  for  several  months. 
Specimens  placed  in  the  bottle  to  be  killed  should 
be  left  there  for  at  least  a  half  hour.  They  may  be  left 
in  the  bottle  several  hours,  even  over  night,  without 
injury.  Thus  a  collecting  trip  may  be  made  one  day 
and  the  specimens  left  in  the  bottle  till  the  following 
day  before  they  are  pinned.  If  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
turn an  insect  to  the  cyanide  bottle  on  account  of  its 
revival  after  it  is  pinned,  the  pin  should  be  removed, 
for  the  gas  in  the  bottle  will  corrode  it. 


|j^>^| 


Fig.  254. 


THE   COLLECTION   OF   SPECIMENS. 


287 


Fig.  255. 


A  small  cyanide  bottle,  about  one  fourth  the  size 
of  that  described  above,  is  very  convenient  for  car- 
rying in  one's  pocket  constantly  during  the 
collecting  season.  A  very  convenient  pock- 
et-bottle  is   represented   half  size  by  Fig. 

255- 

Collecting  Boxes. — Collectors  of  but- 
terflies usually  have  a  shallow  tin  box,  lined 
with  pith  or  cork,  into  which  specimens 
can  be  pinned,  and  fitted  with  a  strap  by 
means  of  which  it  can  be  slung  over  the 
shoulder  (Fig.  256).  A  cheap  substitute  for  such  a 
box  can  be  made  by  using  a  shallow  cigar-box,  lined 
with  cork  and  fitted  with  a  strong  cord.  Make  a 
small  hole  in  each  end  of  the  box,  and  through  each 

hole  put  an  end 
of  the  cord  and 
tie  a  knot  in  it ; 
tack  a  piece  of 
sheet-cork  to  the 
bottom  of  the  box  on  the  inside,  and  the  box  is  ready 
for  use.  If  sheet-cork  can  not  be  obtained,  the  box 
can  be  lined  with  the  pith  of  corn-stalks,  or  slices 
can  be  cut  from  cork  stopples  and  tacked  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  box. 

Folded  Papers  for  Butterflies.— There  is  an- 
other method  of  caring  temporarily  for  specimens  of 
butterflies,  which  is  used  when  it  is  not  convenient  to 
pin  them.  The  specimen  is  killed  while  it  is  yet  in 
the  net  by  pinching  the  thorax,  care  being  taken  that 
the  wings  are  folded  together  above  the  back,  so  that 
they  shall  not  be  rubbed.  Then  the  specimen  is 
dropped  into  a  triangular  envelope  made  by  folding 


Fig,  256. — A  collecting  box. 


288  INSECT   LIFE. 

a  piece  of  paper,  as  shown  in  Fig.  257,  and  a  memo- 
randum of  the  locality  and  date  of  capture  is  written 


Fig.  257.— Folded  paper  for  butterflies, 

on  the  envelope.  If  one  expects  to  use  this  method, 
it  is  well  to  have  a  shallow,  flat  tin  box  in  which  the 
envelopes  can  be  carried  without  danger  of  breaking 
the  specimens.  When  it  is  desired  to  pin  and  spread 
specimens  that  have  been  stored  in  this  way  they  are 
relaxed  by  putting  them  on  damp  sand,  as  described 
in  the  next  chapter. 

Vials  and  Pill-boxes.— A  supply  of  vials  and 
pill-boxes  is  desirable  for  almost  every  collecting  trip  ; 
many  delicate  insects  can  be  carried  with  safety  in 
these  that  would  be  rubbed  in  a  killing  bottle ;  and, 
too,  it  is  often  desirable  to  carry  home  living  speci- 
mens, especially  of  larvae  and  pupae.  For  collecting 
spiders  and  soft-bodied  insects  one  or  more  small 
bottles  or  vials  partly  filled  with  alcohol  are  useful. 

II.    WHEN    AND    WHERE    TO    COLLECT    INSECTS. 

Although  insects  can  be  collected  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year  and  at  all  times  of  the  day  and  night,  there 
are  certain  periods  during  which  a  very  much  greater 
variety  can  be  obtained  than  at  others. 

Obviously  the  best  season  of  the  year  is  during 
the  summer  months ;  the  best  periods  of  the  day  are 


THE    COLLECTION    OF    SPECIMENS. 


289 


between  8  A.  M.  and  2  p.  M.,  and  in  the  evening  twilight. 
These  are  the  times  during  which  searching  for  insects 
in  the  fields  will  yield  the  largest  returns.  If,  how- 
ever, the  collecting  be  restricted  to  these  periods 
many  species  will  escape  notice.  Many  insects  can 
also  be  collected  after  dark  by  enticing  them  to  lights 
or  sweetened  baits. 

While  the  careful  collector  will  search  for  speci- 
mens in  all  manner  of  places,  there  are  certain  locali- 
ties in  which  insects  occur  much  more  abundantly 
than  in  others.  First  in  importance  is  upon  herbage 
and  shrubbery,  where  many  species  of  plants  are 
growing  together,  and  especially  upon  the  borders 
of  woods.  Open  fields,  which  are  covered  chiefly  by 
a  single  species  of  plant,  and  deep,  dense  forests  fur- 
nish many  interesting  forms,  but  a  much  more  limited 
variety.  The  banks  and  beds  of  ponds  and  streams 
are  also  excellent  collecting  places.  A  great  variety 
of  forms  can  be  obtained  from  the  lower  surface  of 
stones  taken  from  the  beds  of  streams.  Many  species 
may  be  found  in  the  moss  on  the  trunks  of  trees,  be- 
neath bark,  and  in  rotten  stumps  and  logs.  Other 
forms  are  obtained  from  flowers,  from  dead  animals, 
from  fungi,  in  decaying  fruits,  in  seeds  and  nuts,  and 
under  stones,  chips,  and  other  rubbish.  Frequentlv 
many  cocoons  and  chrysalids  can  be  found  attached 
to  fences  and  to  the  sides  of  buildings,  and  many  in- 
teresting nests  occur  attached  beneath  eaves  and  to 
the  lower  surface  of  the  roofs  of  barns  and  other 
buildings. 

III.     HOW    TO    COLLECT    INSECTS. 

There  are  ways,  to  be  described  later,  by  which 
large  numbers  of  specimens  are  easily  obtained.    But 


290 


INSECT    LIFE. 


in  these  wholesale  modes  of  collecting  comparatively 
little  is  learned  regarding  the  species  collected.  On 
this  account  careful  searching  for  specimens  should 
be  placed  first  among  the  methods  of  collecting.  The 
eye  should  be  trained  to  detect  insects  in  their  natu- 
ral haunts  without  disturbing  them ;  then  something 
can  be  learned  of  the  habits  of  the  species  before 
taking  specimens. 

By  carefully  peering  into  herbage  or  among  the 
foliage  of  shrubs  and  trees  many  insects  can  be  ob- 
served and  many  lessons  learned  ;  other  localities  in 
which  insects  abound  are  indicated  in  the  preceding 
section  of  this  chapter. 

This  looking  among  herbage,  in  trees  and  shrubs, 
and  under  stones  in  the  beds  of  streams,  is  the  simpler 
part  of  searching.  The  more  difficult  part  is  to  train 
the  eyes  to  be  quick  in  recognizing  the  indications  of 
the  presence  of  concealed  insects.  A  dead  or  dying 
twig  will  suggest  a  search  for  a  borer  ;  the  premature 
turning  yellow  of  the  foliage  of  a  branch  will  suggest 
a  similar  cause  ;  the  sudden  wilting  or  drooping  of 
isolated  plants  is  generally  caused  by  insects  either  at 
the  root  or  in  the  stalk.  A  rolled  or  spotted  leaf 
should  be  examined  and  the  cause  ascertained.  In 
a  word,  the  eyes  should  be  trained  to  be  quick  in 
observing  anything  abnormal  in  the  appearance  of 
plants ;  and  the  mind,  to  be  quick  to  seek  the  cause. 

The  Use  of  Nets. — Much  of  the  success  of  the 
collector  will  depend  upon  his  skill  in  the  use  of  his 
net.  The  deliberate  way  in  which  one  often  sees  a 
net  swung  would  indicate  that  the  collector  believes 
that  the  insects  are  waiting  to  be  caught.  The  small 
returns,  however,  which  result   from    this  mode  of 


THE    COLLECTION   OF    SPECIMENS. 


291 


collecting  serve  to  dispel  such  belief.  The  net  should 
be  swung  so  quickly  that  the  insects  have  not  time 
to  escape.  In  collecting  butterflies,  dragon-flies,  and 
other  swiftly  flying  insects,  it  is  usually  better  to  wait 
till  the  insect  alights  before  attempting  to  catch  it. 

For  general  collecting  the  most  important  mode 
of  using  the  net  is  that  commonly  known  as  sweep- 
ing. Larger  returns,  both  as  regards  the  number  of 
species  and  of  specimens,  can  be  obtained  in  this  way 
than  in  any  other.  In  order  to  sweep,  the  collector 
grasps  his  net  handle  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
above  the  ring,  and  with  a  quick  motion  back  and 
forth  in  front  of  him  as  he  walks  through  the  grass 
or  other  herbage,  sweeps  the  insects  from  it  into  his 
net.  Of  course,  the  net  must  be  turned  at  the  end  of 
each  stroke,  and  must  be  kept  in  rapid  motion,  so 
that  the  insects  can  not  escape  from  it.  After  sweep- 
ing a  greater  or  less  distance,  depending  upon  the 
abundance  of  specimens,  the  net  is  examined,  the  de- 
sirable specimens  secured,  and  the  others  allowed  to 
escape. 

Another  method  of  using  a  net  is  to  beat  from 
beneath  the  foliage  of  shrubs  and  trees ;  in  this  way 
many  specimens  can  be  jarred  into  the  net. 

In  using  a  net  in  water  it  should  be  moved  back 
and  forth  as  rapidly  as  possible,  care  being  taken  to 
beat  or  sweep  any  plants  growing  on  the  bottom  of 
the  pond  or  stream.  Sometimes  many  specimens  can 
be  obtained  by  sweeping  into  the  net  leaves  and  other 
rubbish  from  the  bottom  of  a  pond,  and  bringing  them 
to  the  shore  and  looking  them  over  carefully. 

In  swiftly  flowing  streams  an  excellent  way  to 
collect  is  to  stand   where  the  water  flows  swiftest, 


2^2  INSECT    LIFE. 

holding  the  net  in  a  vertical  position  between  the 
feet,  and  overturning  the  stones  in  the  bed  of  the 
stream  in  front  of  the  net  with  a  hoe  or  garden  rake. 
If  the  current  is  swift  enough  many  of  the  insects 
that  live  beneaih  such  stones  will  be  swept  into  the 
net. 

Sugaring. — The  method  of  collecting  insects 
known  among  entomologists  as  sugaring  is  one  of 
the  most  important  to  the  collector  of  night-flying 
moths.  Other  insects  can  be  taken  in  this  way,  but 
not  in  so  great  numbers  as  moths.  A  paste  is  made 
of  sugar  and  water.  Unrefined  sugar  is  the  best  for 
this  purpose,  as  it  has  a  stronger  odor  than  white 
sugar.  The  paste  should  be  thin  enough  to  be  used 
with  a  brush,  but  not  so  thin  that  it  will  flow  from 
the  objects  to  which  it  is  applied.  This  paste  is  ap- 
plied immediately  after  sunset  to  the  trunks  of  trees, 
to  fences,  and  to  other  suitable  objects.  In  each  case 
a  patch  about  two  inches  wide  and  several  inches 
long  is  made.  After  dark  these  baits  are  visited  by 
the  collector,  who  carries  a  lantern  and  several  cyanide 
bottles.  One  bottle  is  needed  for  storing  the  speci' 
mens  after  they  have  become  quiet,  and  several  bot> 
ties  for  collecting.  Some  collectors  use  a  dark  lan- 
tern, but  an  ordinary  lantern  will  serve  the  purpose. 
This  should  be  hung  on  the  left  arm,  leaving  both 
hands  free  to  manipulate  the  collecting  bottle. 

If  a  patch  of  sugar  be  approached  cautiously, 
usually  the  light  can  be  directed  upon  it  without  dis- 
turbing the  moths  that  are  there  feeding.  If  a  speci- 
men is  seen  that  is  desired,  the  cork  can  be  removed 
from  the  collecting  bottle  with  the  left  hand  and  the 
bottle  placed   over  the   specimen.     The   insect  will 


THE   COLLECTION   OF    SPECIMENS.  293 

usually  fly  into  the  bottom  part  of  the  bottle  ;  if  it 
does  not,  a  slight  lateral  movement  of  the  bottle  will 
cause  it  to  do  so.  The  bottle  should  then  be  brought 
into  a  vertical  position  with  the  mouth  directed  up- 
ward, and  quickly  carried  to  the  cork  which  is  held 
in  the  left  hand. 

The  specimens  collected  should  be  left  in  a  cyanide 
bottle  until  the  following  morning.  Then  there  will 
be  no  danger  of  the  resuscitation  of  any  of  them. 
Warm  dark  nights  when  there  is  but  little  or  no  wind 
are  the  best  for  sugaring. 

Collecting  at  Lights. — Very  many  insects  are 
attracted  to  lights,  and  at  such  times  are  easily  caught. 
When  electric  street  lamps  can  be  reached  they  afiord 
the  most  prolific  fields  for  the  collector.  A  study 
lamp  placed  at  an  open  window  on  a  summer  even- 
ing, although  less  prolific  than  the  more  conspicuous 
street  lamps,  often  yields  good  returns. 


CHAPTER  II. 


Fig.  258. 


THE    PRESERVATION    OF    SPECIMENS. 

There  are  two  ways  of  pre- 
serving entomological  speci- 
mens :  they  may  be  either  pinned 
and  dried,  or  they  may  be  placed 
in  a  preservative  fluid.  The 
method  chosen  will  depend  upon 
the  nature  of  the  specimen  and 
the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  As  a  rule,  any 
specimen  that  will  preserve  its  form  when  dried  is 
pinned.  Thus  entomologists  usually  pin  the  adults 
of  nearly  all  insects,  specimens  of  nests,  infested 
twigs,  mined  or  rolled  leaves,  and  other  similar  ob- 
jects. On  the  other  hand,  the  immature  forms  of  all 
insects,  and  such  adults  as  have  soft  bodies  that  will 
shrivel  upon  drying,  are  usually  placed  in  alcohol. 
Millipedes,  centipedes,  mites,  spiders,  and  other 
forms  allied  to  these  are  also  preserved  in  alcohol. 
Some  insects,  on  account  of  their  minute  size,  are 
mounted  as  microscopic  objects  in  Canada  balsam 
upon  glass  slips,  as  described  later. 

In  case  specimens  are  desired  for  anatomical 
study,  they  are  preserved  in  alcohol  or  some  other 
fluid,  whether  the  body  be  soft  or  not ;  and  certain 

294 


THE    PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS. 


295 


hard-bodied  insects,  as  beetles,  are  often  stored  in 
alcohol  and  pinned  later.  But  many  insects,  as  flies 
and  other  hairy  forms,  are  greatly  injured  by  being 
placed  in  a  fluid,  the  hairs  being  matted  so  that  when 
the  insect  is  pinned  it  presents  an  unnatural  appear- 
ance. 

Insect  Pins. — For  pinning  insects  a  special  kind 
of  pin  is  ordinarily  used — one  made  of  slender  wire — 
so  that  the  specimens  are  mutilated  as  little  as  possi- 
ble. These  can  be  procured  of  any  dealer  in  ento- 
mological supplies ;  a  list  of  such  dealers  is  given  on 
page  340. 

There  are  several  styles  of  insect  pins,  but  all 
of  those  in  general  use  can  be  classed  under  two 
heads — the  English  and  the  German.  The  English 
pins  are  short,  so  that  an  insect  when  pinned  is  close 
to  the  bottom  of  the  cabinet,  while  the  German  pins 
are  long,  so  that  the  pinned  insect  is  held  free  from 
the  bottom  of  the  cabinet.  By  the  use  of  the  latter 
the  danger  of  breaking  off  the  legs  from  specimens, 
when  they  are  changed  from  one  place  in  the  cabinet 
to  another,  is  greatly  lessened.  Without  entering 
into  any  further  discussion  as  to  the  relative  merits 
of  the  two  kinds  of  pins,  it  can  be  said  that  it  would 
be  unwise  for  an  American  collector  to  use  any  but 
the  German  pins,  for,  as  nearly  all  American  ento- 
mologists use  this  style,  it  would  be  difficult  for  a 
collector  using  short  pins  to  make  exchanges  in  this 
country. 

Insect  pins  are  made  of  different  sizes  of  wire  and 
numbered  accordingly,  but  the  numbers  used  by  the 
different  makers  do  not  correspond  with  each  other. 
Below  is  given  the  names  of  the  three  kinds  of  Ger- 


296 


INSECT  LIFE. 


1      3 

Fig. 


259- 


man  pins  now  advertised   for  sale  in   this    country, 
with  a  list  of  the  sizes  of  each.     Fig.  259  represents 

Klager  pins : — 

Klager  :  00,  o,  7,  2,  [j],  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 

Length,  if  inch. 

(Karlsbad)  Carlesbader  :  o,  1,2,  3,  4,  [5], 

6,  7,  <?,  9,  10.     Length,  I -J-  inch. 

Schluter:  00,  o,  i,  2,  [j],  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9. 

Length,  i-|  inch. 

The  numbers  printed  in  italics  indicate 

in  each  case  the  sizes  that  will  be  found 

most   generally  useful.      If  only  a   single 

size  is  purchased,  select  that  in  brackets. 
A  convenient  way  of  storing  insect  pins 
is  in  a  block  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  260.  The 
holes  in  the  block  are  about  three  fourths  as  deep  as 
the  pins  are  long,  so  that  the  heads  of  the  pins  pro- 
ject from  them.  Several  holes  are  made  in  the  block 
in  order  that  each  size  of  pin  can  be  kept  separate. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  impracticable  for  the  pupil 
to  procure  insect  pins,  ordinary  pins,  or  the  smaller 
sizes  of  the  black  pins,  commonly  called  mourning 
pins,  can  be  used.  As  a  rule, 
the  mourning  pins  have  bet- 
ter points  than  the  common 
brass  pins,  and  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred on  this  account,  espe- 
cially when  cork  or  pith  is 
not  used  in  the  insect  cases. 
If  possible,  how^ever,  insect  pins  should  be  used. 
Ordinary  pins  are  made  of  too  large  wire  for  pinning 
insects,  and  specimens  pinned  with  such  pins  are 
rarely  suitable  for  a  permanent  collection,  although 


Fig,  260. — Block  for  pins. 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS. 


297 


Fig.  261. 


Fig.  262. 


they  may  serve  very  well  the  purposes  of  a  tempora- 
ry study. 

The  Pinning  of  Specimens. — The  appearance  of 
a  collection  of  insects  depends  greatly  upon  the  care 
taken  in  pinning  the  specimens.     Nearly  all  insects 

should    be    pinned 

through    the    mid- 
dle of    the  thorax. 

Many     bugs    (He- 

miptera)    are    best 

pinned  through  the 

scutellum         (Fig- 

261),     and     beetles 

are  pinned  through 

the  right  wing-cov- 
er at  about  one  fourth  its  length  from  the  base  (Fig. 
262).  About  one  fourth  of  the  length  of  the  pin 
should  be  allowed  to  project  above  the  specimen  ; 
uniformity  in  this  respect  will  add  greatly  to  the 
neatness  of  the  appearance  of  the  collection.   . 

A  convenient  device  for  securing  uniformity  is 
what  may  be  termed  a  pinning  block.  This  is  made 
from  strips  of  wood  w^hich  are 
one  fourth  as  thick  as  the  pins 
are  long,  and  which  are  fas- 
tened together  as  shown  in 
Fig.  263.  A  hole  just  large 
enough  to  allow  the  passage 
of  the  head  of  an  insect  pin  is  bored  through  the 
center  of  each  of  the  steps  of  the  block.  In  pinning 
an  insect  the  pin  is  pushed  through  the  insect  so  that 
less  than  one  fourth  of  its  length  projects  above  it, 
and  then  the  insect  is  pushed  back  into  place  by  in- 


Fig.  263. — A  pinning  block. 


298 


INSECT    LIFE. 


serting  the  head  of  the  pin  in  the  hole  in  the  lower 
step  of  the  block.  This  step  and  the  second  are  used 
in  spacing  labels,  and  the  third  is  used  in  fixing  the 
height  of  insects  mounted  on  cardboard  points. 

Insects  that  are  too  small  to  be  pinned,  but  not  so 
small  that  they  need  to  be  mounted  as  microscopic 
objects,  are  gummed  to  the  points  of  narrow 
and  pointed  pieces  of  cardboard,  which  are 
mounted  on  pins  (Fig.  264).     Another  way 
is  to  impale  the  insect  on  the  point  of  a  fine 
pin,  inserting  the  pin  into  the  lower  side  of 
[e^rtJociiJ   the  thorax,  and  then,  after  cutting  away  the 
[s^^^^j   head   and    the   larger   part   of   the    pin,  to 
mount  what  is  left  in  a  narrow  strip  of  firm 
Fig.  264.     blotting   paper,  w^hich  in  turn  is    mounted 
on  a  large  pin  (Fig.  265).     If  suitable  card- 
board can  be  obtained  for  this  purpose  it  is  better 
than  blotting  paper,  but  ordinary  cardboard  is  split 
by  the  pins.      Still  another  way  of  mounting  small 
insects   is   to   impale   them    on   the 
point  of  a  bent  pin  which  is  fastened 

^,,    to  another  pin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  266. 

"  ^    In  preparing  these  pins  the  fine  one 
is  wound  about  the  coarser  one  a 
short  distance  from  the  point  of  the 
latter,  where  it  is  somewhat  tapered, 
the  two  being  held  together  with 
pliers  ;  then  the  head  is  cut  off  from 
Fig.  265.   ^^^  small  pin,  and  it  is  shoved   up 
toward  the  head  of  the  coarse  one.      If  care  has  been 
taken  to  wind  the  fine  pin  closely  about  the  larger 
one,  it  will  fit  the  latter  tightly  when  pushed  into 
the  proper  position. 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF    SPECIMENS.  299 

In  pinning-  leaves  a  small  piece  of  cardboard 
should  be  placed  on  each  side  of  the  leaf  and  the  pin 
pushed  through  these.  This  will  hold  the  specimen 
firmly  in  place. 

Pinning  Forceps. — In  handling  pinned  specimens 
pinning  forceps  are  desirable,  as  by  their  use  there  is 


Fig,  267.— Pinning;  forceps. 

much  less  danger  of  bending  the  pins  when  pushing 
them  into  cork.  Several  styles  of  pinning  forceps  are 
for  sale  by  dealers ;  that  used  by  the  writer  is  shown 
in  Fig.  267.  As  these  forceps  are  quite  expensive, 
comparatively  few  pupils  will  care  to  buy  them.  A 
good  substitute  for  them  are  the  *' flat-nosed  "  pliers, 
which  can  be  obtained  at  any  hardware  store.  By 
means  of  these  a 
delicate  pin  can  be 
grasped  firmly  near 
the  point  and  pushed 
into  soft  wood  with- 

^         ,         J.  •,  Fig.  26S.— Pliers. 

out       bendmg       it. 

These  pliers  are  somewhat  more  convenient  to  use  if 

one  corner  be  ground  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  268. 

In  transferring  specimens  that  are  pinned  with 
slender  pins  take  hold  of  the  head  of  the  pin  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  then 
seize  the  pin  near  the  point  with  the  pliers.  Do 
all  the  pushing  or  pulling  with  the  pliers,  but  keep 
the  pin  from   tipping;   sidewise  with  the  left  hand. 


300 


INSECT   LIFE. 


In  this  way  there  is  but  little  danger  of  bending 
the  pin. 

Preservative  Fluids. — The  most  important  of 
the  preservative  fluids  is  alcohol,  and,  except  for 
special  purposes,  no  other  is  needed.  The  alcohol 
should  be  of  the  full  strength  of  ordinary  commercial 
alcohol — i.  e.,  ninety-five  per  cent.  It  should  be 
noted,  however,  that  many  soft-bodied  insects,  espe- 
cially larvas,  shrivel  if  put  directly  into  strong  alcohol ; 
with  these  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  water  from 
the  body  gradually.  This  can  be  done  by  placing 
the  specimens  in  alcohol  of  different  strengths  suc- 
cessively, using  at  first  fifty  per  cent  alcohol.  This 
can  be  easily  prepared  by  half  filling  the  bottle  with 
strong  alcohol,  then  nearly  filling  it  with  water,  and 
shaking  it  a  few  times.  The  specimens  should  not 
be  left  more  than  five  or  six  hours  in  this ;  they 
should  then  be  transferred  to  seventy-five  per  cent 
alcohol,  prepared  in  a  similar  way.  They  may  be 
left  in  this  for  one  day,  and  then  transferred  to 
strong  alcohol  for  permanent  preservation. 

Certain  colorless  or  white  grubs  and  maggots  are 
apt  to  turn  black  when  preserved  in  alcohol.  This 
can  be  prevented  by  first  dipping  them  in  boiling 
water  for  a  few  seconds,  after  which  they  should  be 
placed  in  alcohol  as  described  above. 

Mounting  Microscopic  Objects. — Insects  that 
are  too  minute  to  be  pinned  or  satisfactorily  mounted 
on  cardboard  points  are  usually  mounted  in  Canada 
balsam  on  a  glass  slide,  and  covered  with  a  very  thin 
sheet  of  glass.  The  slides,  balsam,  and  cover-glasses 
can  be  obtained  of  any  dealer  in  optical  apparatus. 

In  most  cases  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the  water 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS.  301 

from  the  body  of  the  insect  before  mounting  it;  this 
is  done  by  placing  the  specimen  in  alcohol.  If  the 
insect  is  hard  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  shriveling, 
it  may  be  placed  in  strong  alcohol  at  once,  and  then 
mounted  after  a  few  hours.  Insects  with  soft  bodies 
should  be  hardened  gradually  by  being  placed  suc- 
cessively in  fifty  per  cent,  seventy-five  per  cent,  and 
ninety-five  per  cent  alcohol,  as  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding section. 

When  the  specimen  is  hardened  by  the  alcohol, 
place  it  in  a  watch  glass  containing  a  small  quantity 
of  oil  of  cloves,  and  leave  it  for  a  few  minutes ;  this 
is  to  remove  the  alcohol  and  render  the  object  more 
clear.  Then  put  the  object  on  the  slide,  cover  it 
with  balsam,  and  place  a  cover-glass  over  the  im- 
bedded object.  In  the  course  of  a  few  days  the 
balsam  will  become  hard,  so  that  there  will  be  lit- 
tle danger  of  injury  to  the  specimen  by  handling  the 
slide. 

Inflating  Larv.f:. — The  fact  that  the  appearance 
of  many  larvae  is  greatly  altered  by  preserving  them 
in  alcohol  leads  many  entomologists  to  remove  the 
viscera  from  such  larvae,  especially  caterpillars,  and 
inflate  and  dry  the  skins.  The  process  is  somewhat 
difficult  and  disagreeable  to  perform,  but  if  it  is  well 
done  very  beautiful  specimens  are  obtained,  which 
preserve  the  form  and  color  of  the  larvae  much  better 
than  those  prepared  in  any  other  way. 

The  method  of  preparation  is  as  follows : — Kill 
the  larva  by  leaving  it  for  a  time  in  a  cyanide  bottle. 
Insert  the  point  of  a  pin  into  the  posterior  end  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  and,  by  moving  it  about,  break  off 
the  hind  end  of   the  intestine  from  its  attachment 


302 


INSECT    LIFE. 


to  the  end  of  the  body.  Lay  the  specimen  on  a  sheet 
of  blotting  paper,  and,  placing  a  lead  pencil  across  it 
just  back  of  its  head,  press  out  the  viscera  by  rolling 
the  pencil  toward  the  hind  end  of  the  larva.  Dur- 
ing this  operation  move  the  specimen  about  on  the 
blotting  paper  so  that  the  skin  will  be  kept  dry. 
When  the  contents  of  the  body  has  been  pressed  out, 
insert  a  straw  or  a  glass  tube  drawn  to  a  point  at  the 
tip  in  the  opening  at  the  hind  end,  and  inflate  the 
skin.  If  a  straw  is  used,  the  skin  can  be  fastened  to 
it  by  thrusting  a  fine  insect  pin  through  it  and  the 
straw  near  the  hind  end  of  the  specimen.  When  a 
glass  tube  is  used,  first  insert  the  tube,  then  remove 
it  carefully  so  as  to  leave  the  opening  expanded  ; 
heat  the  point  of  the  tube  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and 
insert  it  in  the  opening  again.  If  this  is  done  prop- 
erly the  seared  edges  of  the  opening  will  adhere 
firmly  to  the  point  of  the  tube.  If  the  opening  is  not 
perfectly  closed  it  can  be  sealed  with  a  drop  of  glue. 
Inflate  the  skin,  and  hold  it 
while  inflated  in  a  hot  place  to 
dry.  The  skin  can  be  dried  by 
holding  it  near  to  the  side  of 
the  chimney  of  a  lighted  lamp. 
A  more  convenient  way  is  to 
dry  it  in  a  little  oven,  made  by 
laying  a  large  lamp  chimney 
across  a  tray  of  sand  over  a 
lamp  (Fig.  269).  If  the  glass 
tube  be  cut  in  two,  and  a  sec- 
tion of  rubber  tubing  inserte(J 
between  the  two  pieces,  it  will 
be  much  more  convenient  to  use.      In   drying   the 


Fig.  269. — An  oven. 


THE    PRESERVATION    OF   SrECIMENS.  303 

skin  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  heat  it  too 
much  so  as  to  destroy  the  colors. 

When  the  skin  is  dry,  remove  it  from  the  tube 
and   mount  it  on  a  piece  of  covered  copper  wire, 
which  has  been  bent  about  a  small 
piece  of  cork  through  which  an  in- 
sect pin  is  pushed,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
270.     The  two  ends  of  the  wire  are 
inserted  in  the  opening  from  which 
the  glass  tube  has  been  removed,  a 
drop  of  glue  having  been  previously  ^^^^.SgskS^onJZ 
put  on  each  of  the  ends  (Fig.  271). 

Spreading  Insects. — With  many  insects  it  is  de- 
sirable to  spread  the  wings  at  right  angles  to  the 
length  of  the  body.  Not  only  do  the  specimens  ap- 
pear better  when  prepared  this  way,  but  such  prepa- 
ration is  necessary  in  order  to  see  the  markings  and 
structure  of  the  wings.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
case   of    butterflies   and   moths,    which    are   usually 

spread  before  being 
placed  in  a  permanent 
collection. 

For  spreading  in- 
sects a  device  known  as 
a  spreading  board  is 
used.     This  consists  of 

Fig.  271. — A  mounted  inflated  skin.  . 

two  strips  of  wood  fas- 
tened a  short  distance  apart,  so  as  to  leave  a  groove 
for  the  body  of  the  insect,  and  upon  which  the  wings 
are  fastened  in  position  and  left  until  the  insect  is 
dry  (Fig.  272).  A  narrow  strip  of  cork  is  tacked  to 
the  lower  side  of  the  two  strips  of  wood  ;  this  closes 
the  groove  below,  and  serves  as  a  support  for  the 


304 


INSECT   LIFE. 


pin  upon  which  the  insect  is  pinned.  Another  strip 
of  wood  is  fastened  to  the  lower  side  of  the  cleats  to 
which  the  two  strips  are  nailed. 
This  serves  as  a  bottom,  and 
protects  the  points  of  the  pins 
which  project  through  the  piece 
of  cork. 

In  spreading  a  specimen  a 
narrow  piece  of  paper  is  used 
on  each  side  to  hold  the  wings 
in  place  till  they  are  properly 
arranged  (Fig.  272,  a).  The 
wings  are  moved  into  position 
by  slipping  them  forward  or 
backward  under  the  slips  of 
paper,  using  for  this  purpose  a 
fine  pin,  which  is  inserted  near 
a  strong  vein  of  the  wing. 
When  the  wings  are  properly 
arranged  their  entire  surface  is 
covered  with  wider  strips  of 
paper  (Fig.  272,  b).  The  speci- 
mens are  left  on  the  boards  till 
they  are  dry.  This  usually 
requires  two  or  three  days, 
moths   should    be    left   on   the 


mm 

Fig.  272. — A  spreading  board. 


Large,   stout-bodied 
boards  longer. 

For  pinning  the  sheets  of  paper  over  the  wings 
the  sharp-pointed  "mourning  pins"  are  much  better 
than  the  ordinary  brass  pins,  and  thin  sheets  of  mica 
are  often  used  instead  of  sheets  of  paper. 

A  device  which  may  be  known  as  a  spreading 
pin  is  more  convenient  than  the  narrow  strip  of  paper 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF    SPECIMENS. 


305 


for  holding  the  wings  down  while  they  are  being  ar- 
ranged. This  is  made  of  a  large,  sharp-pointed  pin 
(usually  a  black  pin)  and  a  piece  of  wire 
(Fig.  273).  Fig.  272,  c,  illustrates  the  way 
in  which  these  spreading  pins  are  used. 
Only  two  of  these  are  needed,  as  they  are 
removed  after  the  broad  strips  of  paper  or 
mica  are  pinned  over  the  wrings. 

No  rule  as  to  the  position  in  which  the 


wmgs  should  be  placed  can  be  made  that    fig.  273.— a 

•  11  1       .  n  •  -o     ^  11        spreading  pin. 

Will  apply  to  all  specimens,  out  usually 
in  spreading  moths  the  fore  wings  are  brought  so  far 
forward  that  the  hind  edges  (the  inner  margins)  of 
the  two  wings  form  a  straight  line  across  the  insect 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  body,  and  the 
hind  wings  are  brought  forward  so  that  their  front 
edges  (the  costal  margins)  are  nearly  covered  by  the 
fore  wings.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  the 
wings  of  the  two  sides  in  similar  positions. 

Relaxing  Insects. — It  is  often  desirable  to 
spread  insects  which  have  become  dry  ;  this  is  espe- 
cially the  case  where  butterflies  are  put  into  envelopes 
when  collected,  or  where  more  moths  are  collected 
and  pinned  than  can  be  spread  at  once.  Such  speci- 
mens can  be  spread  at  any  time  later  by  first  relaxing 
them.  To  do  this  partly  fill  a  vessel  with  sand  and 
saturate  the  sand  with  water;  lay  the  specimens  to 
be  relaxed  upon  a  piece  of  paper  spread  over  this 
sand,  and  tightly  close  the  vessel.  If  a  damp  towel 
be  spread  over  the  top  of  the  vessel  before  the  cover 
is  put  on,  the  air  in  the  vessel  will  be  more  surely 
kept  moist.  After  the  specimens  are  left  for  a  time — 
from  one  to  three  days — in  this  moist  atmosphere, 


3o6 


INSECT    LIFE. 


they  can  be  spread  as  easily  as  when  fresh.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  leave  the  specimens  in  the  relax- 
ing jar  too  long  lest  they  become  moldy.  A  few 
drops  of  carbolic  acid  poured  upon  the  sand  will 
tend  to  prevent  the  growth  of  mold. 

Insect  Cases. — Cases  or  boxes  are  needed  in 
which  to  store  specimens  when  pinned.  For  tempo- 
rary use,  and  especially  when  it  is  desirable  to  avoid 
all  unnecessary  expense,  empty  cigar-boxes  can  be 
procured  for  this  purpose.  The  shallow  boxes — 
those  made  to  hold  fifty  cigars — are  best. 

Unfortunately  it  is  impracticable  to  keep  collec- 
tions of  insects  permanently  in  cigar-boxes,  for  there 
is  a  small  beetle — the  museum  pest — which  is  sure  to 
destroy  the  specimens  if  they  are  not  kept  in  cases 
with  tightly  fitting  covers.  Cigar-boxes  will  serve 
the  needs  of  a  class  while  they  are  carrying  on  the 
work ;  but  if  the  teacher  or  any  of  the  pupils  desire 
to  make  a  permanent  collection,  insect  cases  should 
be  procured.  There  are  many  styles  of  these  in  use ; 
that  described  below  will  be  found  serviceable  and 
inexpensive,  and  can  be  made  by  any  skillful  carpen- 
ter.    It  is  made  as  follows  : — 

The  lumber  should  be  basswood  or  some  other 
nonresinous  wood  that  will  not  split  too  easily.  Pine 
is  not  suitable  for  this  purpose  on  account  of  the 
resin  that  will  exude  and  injure  the  specimens.  Cut 
from  a  board,  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  two  strips. 
One  of  these  should  be  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  the 
other  an  inch  and  three  quarters  wide.  Match  these 
together  with  a  tongue  and  groove  three  sixteenths 
of  an  inch  deep,  making  the  groove  in  the  narrower 
piece.     On  one  side  of  the  narrower  piece  near  the 


THE    PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS. 


307 


edge  farthest  from  this  groove  make  another  groove 
fitted  to  receive  a  piece  of  glass,  which  is  to  form  the 
top  of  the  case ;  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  wider 
piece  at  the  edge  farthest  from  the  tongue  cut  a  rab- 
bet three  eighths  of  an  inch  deep  ;  this  is  to  receive 
the  board  that  is  to  form  the  bot- 
tom of  the  case.  Fig.  274  repre- 
sents a  cross  section  of  the  strips  of 
wood  thus  prepared,  and  will  serve 
as  a  working  drawing  for  the  car- 
penter or  cabinet  maker. 

From   these   strips  the  sides  of 

the    case    are   to   be    made.      The 

pi  tongue  and  groove  should  fit  snug- 

■^     y         ly,  so  that  pests  can  not  enter  the 


■"3~L 


i^ 


Fig.  274. 


Fig.  275. 


Fig.  276. 


case  when  it  is  closed,  and  the  corners  of  the  case 
should  be  very  carefully  mitered  (Fig.  275). 

The  corners  should  be  both  glued  and  nailed.  As 
soon  as  the  case  is  put  together,  and  before  the  glue 
hardens,  the  top  and  bottom  should  be  slightly  sepa- 


308 


INSECT    LIFE. 


rated  so  that  they  shall  not  be  glued  together  (Fig. 

276).     If  a  number  is  put  near  one  corner  on  both  the 

cover  and  the  lower 
part  of  the  box  (Fig. 
277)  it  will  be  easy  to 
determine  how  the  case 

Fig.  277. — An  insect  case,  ,         1  i    1  ,    ,  ,1 

should  be  put  together 
after  being  opened,  and  thus  insure  a  fit  of  the  two 
parts.  This  will  also  obviate  the  danger  of  putting 
the  wrong  cover  on  a  case  when  several  of  them 
have  been  opened  at  once. 

The  bottom  should  be  made  of  well-seasoned,  soft, 
nonresinous  wood.  If  the  wood  is  not  well  seasoned 
it  will  shrink  and  make  a  crack  through  which  pests 
will  enter.  It  should  be  soft  so  that  pins  can  be  eas- 
ily inserted  in  it  if  it  is  not  lined  with  cork,  and  non- 
resinous, as  resinous  wood  will  injuriously  affect  the 
specimens,  and  is  liable  to  become  unsightly  from  the 
exudation  of  resin.  For  this  reason  pine  is  unsuit- 
able, but  basswood  is  excellent. 

It  is  important  that  the  cases  be  made  of  uniform 
size,  so  that  they  may  be  stored  as  drawers  in  a  cabi- 
net, or  between  two  upright  boards  upon  which 
cleats  have  been  nailed  three  inches  apart  (Fig.  278)- 
A  convenient  size  is  twelve  inches  and  a  half  by  fif- 
teen inches  and  a  half.  This  admits  of  the  use  of  glass 
which  measures  twelve  inches  by  fifteen  inches,  a 
common  size  of  window  glass.  This  is  a  smaller  size 
than  is  ordinarily  used  by  those  having  large  collec- 
tions of  insects.  But  cases  of  this  size  will  be  more 
convenient  for  young  pupils  to  handle  than  larger 
ones.  A  larger  case  is  described  below  as  the  college 
insect  case. 


THE    PRESERVATION    OF   SPECIMENS. 


309 


Hooks  are  usually  put  on  insect  cases,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  277,  but  they  are  hardly  necessary  on  small 
cases  if  they  are  made  so  that  the  covers  fit  tightly. 

Insect  cases  are  usually  left  the  natural  color  of 
the  wood  on  the  outside  and  painted  white  on  the  in- 
side. Ordinary  oil  paint  is  not  suitable  for  this,  as  it 
will  turn  yellow  when  kept  in  the  dark.  The  best 
paint  for  this  purpose  is  made  of  zinc-white  and  glue. 
Care  should  be  taken  to  get  the  best  quality  of  zinc- 
white — that  which  is  free  from  lumps — otherwise  a 
smooth  paint  can  not  be  made. 

In  making  this  paint  use  an  ordinary  glue-pot. 
Dissolve  one  part  by  weight  of  glue  in  five  parts  of 
water.  Then  stir  in  zinc-white  until  the  mixture  is 
of  the  consistency  of  ordinary  paint ;  about  five  parts 
by  weight  of  zinc-white  will  be  required.  The  mix- 
ture is  heated  while  being  prepared,  and  is  used 
warm.  If  any  of  the  mixture  is  left  unused  it  forms 
a  solid  cake ;  but  this  can  be  liquefied  by  heat  and 
used  when  desired.  This  paint  dries  in  a  few  min- 
utes after  being  applied,  and  will  remain  permanently 
a  beautiful,  clear  white. 

It  is  very  desirable,  if  practicable,  to  have  the 
cases  lined  with  cork.  Sheet-cork  is  kept  by  the 
dealers  in  entomological  supplies  for  this  purpose, 
and  recently  compressed  cork,  which,  when  well 
made,  is  better  than  sheet-cork,  has  come  into  use. 
Compressed  cork  is  ground  cork  mixed  with  a  small 
amount  of  glue,  compressed  into  sheets,  and  covered 
with  paper.  As  a  single  sheet  of  compressed  cork 
will  cover  the  bottom  of  the  case,  it  presents  a 
neater  appearance  than  sheet-cork.  Thick  linoleum, 
a   substance   made   of   cork   and  used  for  covering 


310 


INSECT   LIFE. 


floors,  is  also  a  good  substitute  for  sheet-cork.  The 
use  of  cork  largely  obviates  the  danger  of  injuring 
the  points  of  delicate  pins. 

In  certain  parts  of  our  country,  especially  in  the 
warmer  parts  of  California,  an  excellent  substitute  for 
cork  can  be  obtained  by  cutting  into  thin  slices  dead 
flowering  stalks  of  the  century  plant.  The  inner 
part  of  such  stalks  is  a  very  soft  pith  called  pita-wood 
(pronounced  pe'tah-wood). 

The  pith  of  large  cornstalks  is  even  softer  than 
pita-wood,  but  it  is  not  as  convenient  to  use  on  ac- 
count of  its  smaller  size.  But  the  pupils  that  are 
unable  to  procure  cases  lined  with  cork  or  pita-wood 
should  provide  themselves  with  at  least  one  cigar- 
box,  into  the  bottom  of  which  they  have  neatly  glued 
a  layer  of  corn  pith.  The  cork,  pita-wood,  or  corn 
pith  can  be  covered  with  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  giv- 
ing the  case  a  neat  appearance. 

If  only  a  single  box  is  thus  lined  w^ith  pith,  it 
should  be  reserved  for  the  specimens  that  are  being 
studied — that  is,  those  that  are  taken  out  frequently. 

The  College  Insect  Case. — There  is  a  great  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  size  and  details  of  form  of  the  insect  cases  used  in 
the  larger  museums.  The  style  used  in  the  great  museums  at  Ber- 
lin, Germany,  and  at  Cambridge  in  this  country  differs  from  the  one 
described  above  in  size,  the  outside  dimensions  being  sixteen  inches 
by  nineteen  inches  by  three  inches,  and  in  construction,  the  corners 
being  both  dovetailed  and  mitered,  otherwise  the  two  cases  are  the 
same.  The  case  used  by  the  writer  differs  from  that  used  at  Berlin 
and  Cambridge  only  in  having  the  bottom  made  of  glass  as  well  as 
the  top. 

The  most  essential  feature  of  an  insect  case  is  that  it  shall  be 
tight  so  that  museum  pests  can  not  enter.  In  the  more  common 
insect  cases  the  bottoms  are  of  wood  ;  but  it  is  extremely  difficult 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS.  311 

to  keep  such  bottoms  from  swelling  and  shrinking  with  variations 
in  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere.  The  result  is  that  cases  with 
wooden  bottoms  are  very  liable  to  have  cracks  in  them  which  will 
give  the  museum  pests  a  chance  to  enter.  With  the  ordinary 
method  of  lining  insect  cases  with  cork  the  wooden  bottoms  admit 
of  the  cork  being  easily  fastened  in  place  with  tacks  ;  but  with  the 
method  of  arranging  insects  upon  blocks  described  below  there  is 
no  occasion  for  fastening  anything  to  the  bottom  of  the  case. 
Hence  glass  can  be  used  as  well  as  wood,  and  with  glass  for  both 
top  and  bottom  a  case  can  be  easily  made  which  shall  remain  as 
tight  as  when  new. 

The  Block  System  of  arranging  Collections. — The 
ordinary  way  of  arranging  entomological  collections  is  to  pin  the 
specimens  into  cork  fastened  to  the  bottoms  of  the  cases,  and  this 
method  will  probably  be  found  most  practicable  for  the  greater  num- 
ber of  teachers  that  use  this  book  ;  but  where  a  large  and  rapidly 
growing  collection  is  to  be  cared  for,  the  block  system  of  arranging 
collections,  devised  by  the  writer,  will  be  found  much  more  convenient. 

Under  the  old  system,  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  time  of  a 
curator  of  a  rapidly  growing  collection  is  devoted  to  the  rearrange- 
ment of  his  collection,  to  simply  removing  pinned  specimens  from 
one  place  in  a  cork-lined  case  and  putting  them  into  another.  This 
not  only  consumes  much  time,  but  results  in  the  breaking  of  many 
specimens.  Where  the  block  system  is  used  this  loss  of  time  and 
breakage  of  specimens  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  fundamental  idea  of  the  block  system  is  to  fasten  upon  a 
small  block  each  series  of  specimens  illustrating  a  single  species. 
A  standard  size  of  block  is  adopted  for  what  may  be  termed  the 
unit  block ;  other  blocks  which  are  multiples  or  fractions  of  this 
size  are  also  used.  When  it  is  necessary  to  rearrange  the  collection 
the  relative  positions  of  the  blocks  can  be  easily  and  rapidly  changed 
without  danger  of  breaking  the  specimens. 

The  blocks  are  made  of  soft  nonresinous  wood  and  are  painted 
on  the  upper  side  with  the  zinc-white  and  glue  mixture  described 
above.  The  pins  are  inserted  and  removed  with  pinning  forceps  or 
pliers.  It  is  desirable  to  have  a  few  blocks  made  of  compressed 
cork  or  of  wood  with  sheet-cork  or  linoleum  tacked  to  them  for  the 
specimens  that  are  being  studied  or  are  not  yet  classified.     When 


312 


INSECT   LIFE. 


specimens  are  ready  to  be  put  in  a  permanent  place  they  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  wooden  blocks  ;  after  this  it  is  seldom  necessary  to 
remove  the  pins  from  the  wood. 

Where  the  block  system  is  used  it  is  very  important  that  the  in- 
sect cases  be  of  uniform  size,  so  that  the  blocks  shall  fit  well.  This 
can  be  assured  by  having  an  iron  frame  over  which  each  case  is 
fitted  when  made.  The  corners  should  be  cut  from  this  frame  so 
as  to  make  room  for  the  glue  that  is  pressed 
out  from  the  corners  of  the  case  by  the  clamps 
that  are  used  in  making  the  case  (Fig.  278). 

The  blocks  also  should  be  of  uniform  sizes. 
This  is  most  easily  attained  where  they  are 
cut  by  machinery,  and,  too,  they  are  much 
cheaper  when  made  in  this  way.  Those  used 
by  the  writer  are  made  by  a  manufacturer 
of  bee-keepers'  supplies,  and  cost  unpainted 
three  dollars  per  thousand. 

The  blocks  are  all  one  third  inch  in  thick- 
ness and  4|^  inches  in  length.  This  admits 
of  there  being  four  columns  of  blocks  in  each 
case.*  The  variation  in  size  is  attained  by  having  the  blocks  of 
differing  widths.  There  is  given  below  a  list  of  the  widths  ot  blocks 
used  in  the  entomological  collections  under  the  charge  of  the  writer. 

BLOCKS    FOR    MOUNTING    INSECTS. 


Fig.  278. — Iron  frame 
for  mold  for  cases. 


Name  of 

size. 

Dimensions  in 

inches. 

Remarks. 

Double 

iF- 

M 

3f 
Ik 

n 

Used  for  series  illustrating 
the  transformations  or  hab- 
its of  a  species. 

Used  for  large  insects  as 
Lepidoptera  and  large  Or- 
thoptera. 

For  small  insects. 

One  and  one 
Unit 

half.  . . 

One  half 

One  third 

One  fourth 

One  eighth 

For  generic  and  family  labels. 

For  filling  out  columns  ;  only 

a  few  of  these  are  needed. 

One  sixth . 

One  twelfth 

*  The  outside  dimensions  of  the  case  are  sixteen  inches  by  nineteen 
inches.     As  the  wooden  sides  are  half  an  inch  thick,  the  case  measures 


THE   PRESERVATION   OF   SPECIMENS.  313 

The  blocks  should  be  made  so  that  the  grain  of  the  wood  ex- 
tends along  the  longer  dimension  of  the  block,  i.  e.,  from  top  to 
bottom  in  the  first  two  sizes,  and  from  left  to  right  in  all  others. 

Bent-necked  Vials. — It  is  necessary  to  preserve  many  speci- 
mens in  alcohol,  and  it  is  very  desirable  that  such  specimens  should 
be  mounted  on  blocks  so  as  to  be  placed  with  other  specimens  illus- 
trating the  same  species.  The  use  of  the  ordinary  vials  or  glass 
tubes  for  this  is  attended  with  serious  difficulties.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible to  prevent  the  leakage  of  the  alcohol  and  the  consequent 
destruction  of  the  cpecimens.  In  addition 
to  this  the  curved  surface  of  a  vial  will  make 
the  contained  specimen  appear  very  different 
from  what  it  is.  A  long  slender  larva  will 
appear  much  thicker  than  it  is,  while  its 
length  will  not  be  magnified.  nedfedvial.^^  ' 

To  meet  these  difficulties  the  v/riter  has 
had  vials  made  of  the  form  represented  in  Fig.  279.  The  bend  in 
the  neck  prevents  the  rapid  leakage  of  alcohol,  and  the  plain  sides 
the  magnification  of  one  diameter  of  the  contained  specimens.  Two 
sizes  of  these  vials  are  manufactured — one  containing  one  half 
ounce,  the  other  two  ounces.  They  can  be  obtained  of  Messrs. 
Whitall,  Tatum  &  Co.,  New  York. 

To  fix  one  of  these  vials  to  a  block  a  white  card  is  fastened  to 
its  lower  side  with  liquid  glue  (the  acetic  acid  and  alcohol  solution). 


(Ci 


Fig.  280.— Clips  for  slides  on  a  block.  Fig.  281. 

The  card  is  then  trimmed  close  to  the  sides  of  the  vial,  but  is  al- 
lowed to  project  a  short  distance  beyond  each  end  ;  then  the  card  is 
fastened  at  each  end  to  the  block  with  ribbon  pins. 

on  the  inside  fifteen  inches  by  eighteen  inches.  This  would  admit  of 
four  columns  of  blocks,  each  block  being  four  inches  and  a  half  long ; 
but  in  order  that  the  blocks  may  be  easily  removed  from  the  case  they 
are  made  a  little  shorter  than  this. 


314 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Clips  for  Slides. — The  glass  slides  upon  which  microscopic 
objects  are  mounted  are  fastened  to  blocks  by  means  of  clips  which 
are  made  from  wire  (Figs.  280  and  281). 

Destruction  of  Museum  Pests. — Even  when  specimens 
are  kept  in  tight  cases,  it  often  happens  that  the  museum  pest  finds 
its  way  into  a  case  and  attacks  the  specimens.  The  presence  of 
this  tormentor  is  indicated  by  a  fine  dust  that  falls  to  the  bottom 
of  the  case  from  the  infested  specimen.  All  of  the  cases  in  a  col- 
lection should  be  searched  once  a  month  for  this  indication  of  the 
presence  of  pests.  If  a  case  is  found  to  be  infested,  the  pests  can 
be  destroyed  by  pouring  a  tablespoonful  of  carbon  bisulphide  in  one 
corner  of  the  case  and  tightly  closing  the  case.  This  substance 
evaporates  rapidly  and  will  destroy  the  pests  without  injuring  the 
specimens.     It  can  be  obtained  of  any  druggist. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  store  away  a  collection  for  more  than  one 
month,  a  naphtha  cone  should  be  put  in  each  case  and  strips  of 
paper  pasted  over  the  crack  between  the  top  and  bottom.  Naphtha 
cones  can  be  obtained  of  dealers  in  entomological  supplies. 

Mold. — In  certain  regions  where  the  climate  is  moist  speci- 
mens are  very  hable  to  become  covered  with  mold.  The  best 
method  of  preventing  this  is  to  keep  a  small  quantity  of  carbolic 
acid  in  the  cases. 


CHAPTER   III. 

ON    LABELING    SPECIMENS    AND    TAKING    NOTES. 

In  making  a  collection  of  insects,  the  specimens 
should  be  carefully  labeled  so  that  it  will  be  possible 
at  any  time  to  tell  when  and  where  each  one  was  col- 
lected ;  and  if  observations  are  made  regarding  the 
insects,  these  should  be  recorded  in  such  a  way  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  regarding  the  specimens  to 
which  they  refer.  The  collector,  therefore,  should 
adopt  at  the  outset  a  definite  system  of  labeling  speci- 
mens and  of  taking  notes. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  system  adopted 
should  be  a  simple  one,  one  that  can  be  easily  carried 
out ;  for  if  too  much  labor  is  involved  there  will  be 
great  danger  that  it  will  not  be  done. 

I.    ON    LABELING    SPECIMENS. 

Unnumbered  Specimens. — The  number  of  speci- 
mens which  a  collector  of  insects  must  handle  is  so 
great  that  it  is  impracticable  to  give  each  specimen  a 
number  referring  to  a  catalogue  or  a  note-book,  as  is 
customary  in  collecting  larger  animals.  Entomolo- 
gists, therefore,  when  they  wish  merely  to  record  the 
locality  and  date  of  capture  make  use  of  small  labels 
which  are  placed  on  the  pins  below  the  specimens. 

315 


Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y, 

Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96, 

Ithaca,  N,  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y,  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Aug.  '96,  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96, 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca.  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96. 

Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y.  Ithaca,  N.  Y, 

Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96.  Aug.  '96. 


316  INSECT    LIFE. 

These  labels  may  be  either  printed  or  written  or 
partly  printed,  and  with  blank  spaces  to  be  filled  out 

with  a  pen.  Fig.  282  is 
a  copy  of  a  sheet  of  la- 
bels of  the  latter  kind. 
With  a  label  of  this  kind 
it  is  only  necessary  to 
write  a  figure  indicating 
the  day  of  the  month  on 
which  the  specimen  was 

Fig.  282.— Locality  and  date  labels.  n       .      i  t.l  >l      i      . 

collected.  It  costs  but 
little  to  have  labels  like  these  printed  ;  and  they  save 
much  labor,  and  add  greatly  to  the  neatness  of  the 
collection. 

In  getting  labels  of  this  kind,  tell  the  printer  not 
to  space  the  labels,  but  to  set  them  solid,  so  that  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  trim  them  after  they  are 
cut  apart.  The  smaller  the  labels  are  the  better  they 
appear. 

In  writing  labels  it  is  best  to  use  India  ink,  as  the 
ordinary  writing  inks  fade  in  the  course  of  a  few 
years  if  exposed  to  light.  In  writing  dates  use  the 
ordinary  abbreviations  for  the  months  instead  of 
numerals,  as  is  sometimes  done.  For  when  numerals 
are  used  there  is  danger  of  ambiguity  ;  6,  9,  '96  may 
mean  either  6  Sept.,  '96,  or  June  9,  '96. 

In  the  case  of  bottles  of  alcoholic  specimens  pin 
a  label  to  the  stopper,  for  convenience  of  reading,  and 
put  a  duplicate  within  the  bottle  to  prevent  the  oc- 
currence of  mistakes  from  an  exchange  of  stoppers. 

Sometimes  in  addition  to  the  label  indicating  the 
locality  and  date  of  capture,  it  is  desirable  to  add  one 
indicating  the  conditions  of  capture,  as  at  sugar,  at 


ON   LABELING   SPECIMENS   AND    TAKING   NOTES. 


317 


electric  light,  or  in  the  twilight.     We  have  sheets  of 
labels  printed  for  this  purpose  (Fig.  283). 
When  more  than  one  label  is  used 


Sugar.  Light.  Twilight. 

they  are  spaced  on  the  pin  so  that    |;;|-  Lghj-  Twilight. 
each  can  be  read.  I^f-  £g;;  IriigE;: 

Numbered  Species.  —  In  the  ^''^^'-  ^'^^'-  "^^^'^^ht. 
study  of  life  histories  it  is  often  nee-  ^dicatm^ conditions 
essary  to  record  more  information  of  capture. 
than  can  be  placed  upon  labels.  In  such  cases  the 
specimens  and  notes  should  be  given  corresponding 
numbers.  Even  in  this  case  it  is  not  best  to  give 
each  specimen  a  distinct  number;  a  much  simpler 
way  is  to  give  all  specimens  of  each  species  the  same 
number. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  first  species  studied 
is  the  apple-tree  tent-caterpillar.  In  this  case  all  the 
specimens  of  this  species  should  be  labeled  No.  i, 
and  all  notes  on  this  species  should  have  the  same 
number.  The  next  species  studied  should  be  num- 
bered No.  2,  and  so  on. 

The  locality  and  date  labels,  already  described, 
can  be  used  in  connection  with  the  numbered  labels ; 
there  is  no  objection  to  putting  two  or  three  labels 
on  a  specimen  if  each  records  additional  informa- 
tion. 

Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  make  notes  regarding 
a  particular  specimen,  which  shows  some  individual 
peculiarity  or  was  collected  under  peculiar  conditions. 
In  such  a  case  use  is  made  of  a  subnumber,  which  is 
written  on  the  label  below  the  number  referring  to 
the  species. 

Fig.  284  represents  a  sheet  of  labels  such  as  we 
use  for  our  numbered  species.     Cornell  U.  is  printed 


3i8 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U. 

No.  No.  No. 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 


Fig.   284. — Labels    for 
bered  species. 


num- 


on  each  label  to  avoid  the  danger  of  mistakes  occur- 
ring  in   case   exchanges   are   made    with    collectors 
using  a  similar  system.     Each  of  our  students  using 
this  system  has  his  name  printed 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.      jn    thc    COrrCSpOuding    plaCC  OU 

Sub.         Sub.         Sub.  hig   labels.      The   blank   space 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  ,  ,  ,   ,  .       .  r^      ,        . 

No.  No.  No.  after  the  abbreviation  bub.  is 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub.  .      , 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.      USCd    Ouly   wllCU  it  IS   UCCCSSary 

No.  No.  No.  ,  .  1  1  •       1  • 

to  give  a  subnumber,  as  indi- 
cated above.  A  narrow  blank 
space  is  left  below  the  place 
for  the  subnumber  in  which  a 
date  may  be  written. 

Numbered  Lots  of  Specimens. — The  method  of  labeling 
specimens  described  above  will  be  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  those 
whose  collections  are  small.  The  following  suggestion  is  for  those 
having  charge  of  large  and  rapidly  growing  collections  : — 

It  often  happens  that  a  large  number  of  specimens,  not  all  of  the 
same  species,  are  to  be  labeled,  respecting  each  of  which  precisely 
the  same  record  is  to  be  made.  It  is  my  practice  to  give  each  lot 
of  specimens  of  this  kind  a  number,  and  to  place  on  each  specimen 
a  label  indicating  the  lot  to  which  it  belongs.  In  a  note-book,  kept 
especially  for  this  purpose,  and  known 
as  the  Lot  Book,  a  full  account  of  each 
lot  is  written.  By  doing  this  the  record 
is  as  complete  as  it  would  be  were  each 
specimen  given  a  number,  and  a  note 
written  for  each.  Fig.  285  represents 
a  sheet  of  the  labels  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  following  extracts  from  the 
Lot  Book  of  Cornell  University  will  illus- 
trate the  application  of  this  system  : — 
Lot  30. — Lepidoptera  from  Colorado. 

These  were  collected  and  presented  to  the  university  by  Mr 
H.  W.  Nash.     See  Letter  File  I,  page  43. 
Lot  31. — Coleoptera  from  Arizona.     These  were  collected  by  Mr 


Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U. 

Lot  Lot  Lot 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U. 

Lot  Lot  Lot 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U. 

Lot  Lot  Lot 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 

Cornell  U.  Cornell  U.  Cornell  U. 

Lot  Lot  Lot 

Sub.  Sub.  Sub. 

Fig.    285. — Labels    for    num- 
bered lots  of  specimens. 


ON   LABELING   SPECIMENS  AND   TAKING   NOTES. 


319 


H.   K.  Morrison.     They  were  purchased  in  February,   1883. 
See  letters. 
Lot  45. — A  collection  of  Hemiptera  determined  by  Professor  P.  R. 
Uhler  during  the  year  1883.     See  correspondence   in  Letter 
Book  I  and  Letter  File  I.     The  subnumbers  refer  to  a  list  fur- 
nished by  Professor  Uhler,  which  is  in  Letter  File  I,  pp.  166- 
172. 
The  last  extract  illustrates  a  very  important  use  made  of  lot 
numbers.     In  this  way  it  is  easy  to  label  each  specimen  so  that  its 
name  and  the  authority  for  the  determination  can  be  easily  ascer- 
tained.   And  as  the  label  is  a  small  one  placed  upon  the  pin,  there  is 
no  danger  of  the  specimen  and 
its    label    becoming    separated. 
These  labels  are  used  in  addition 
to  the  larger  labels  placed  at  the 
head  of  each  series  of  specimens 
in  a  systematic  collection. 


Cohoptero, , 

Cicindeiidae  . 

Omus . 

Omus .. 

ftornii 

<                 K 

* 

Omus 
Jeeontii 

X             t 

* 

Omus 

Jo-eu-is 


Omu 


Blank  Forms  for 
Labels.  —  In  arranging 
specimens  in  a  systematic 
order  in  a  collection,  there 
should  be  placed  at  the 
head  of  each  group  of  in- 
sects a  label  bearing  the 
name  of  the  group.  These 
labels  are  used  in  addition 
to  those  already  described, 
which  are  always  left  on 
the  pins  or  in  the  bottles 
as  the  case  may  be.  The 
group  labels  are  of  larger  size  than  the  preceding, 
and  are  usually  written  on  blank  forms  like  those 
shown  in  Fig.  286,  except  that  it  is  customary  to  have 
the  forms  printed  in  red  ink  ;  and  the  forms  are  twice 

as  long  and  twice  as  wide  as  shown  here. 

22 


1     Tetro-cha.^ 

ntrccU 
eck-rollna. 

X 

Tefraeha 
virfiniea.. 

X 

Fig.  286.— Labels. 


320  INSECT    LIFE. 

The  four  sizes  are  used  for  the  names  of  orders, 
families,  genera,  and  species  respectively.  The 
method  of  arrangement  of  these  labels  is  also  shown 
in  Fig.  286,  the  x's  representing  the  position  of  the 
specimens  thus  labeled. 

These  figures  represent  the  style  of  labels  ordi- 
narily used  in  collections.  In  the  case  of  collections 
made  by  young  pupils  who  are  beginning  the  study 
of  insects  more  extensive  labels  may  be  desirable. 
These  should  be  neatly  written  on  plain  paper  and  a 
line  drawn  about  each  with  a  pen.  See  examples  in 
Lessons  XVIII  and  XXV. 

II.    ON    TAKING    NOTES. 

Note-books  and  Slips. — There  are  two  distinct 
systems  of  keeping  notes  :  By  one,  the  notes  are  writ- 
ten in  a  blank  book ;  by  the  other,  they  are  written 
on  slips  of  paper,  which  are  afterward  arranged  ac- 
cording to  subjects. 

An  objection  to  the  use  of  a  note-book  arises  from 
the  fact  that  when  one  begins  a  series  of  observations 
it  is  impossible  to  determine  how  much  space  is  going 
to  be  required  for  the  notes  on  it ;  and,  consequently, 
it  is  impracticable  to  keep  together  all  notes  on  each 
subject.  By  the  slip  system  this  is  easily  done ;  for 
this  reason,  most  naturalists  write  their  notes  on  slips 
or  sheets  of  paper,  and  keep  them  classified  in  envel- 
opes or  covers. 

A  combination  of  these  two  systems  meets  most 
perfectly  the  needs  of  an  entomologist.  It  is  my 
practice  to  write  notes  on  general  subjects  on  sheets 
of  paper,  which  are  kept  classified  in  folded  sheets  of 
Manilla  paper.     But  for  the  notes  on  species  of  in- 


ON   LABELING   SPECIMENS   AND    TAKING   NOTES. 


321 


sects  both  a  note-book  and  loose  sheets  of  paper  are 
used. 

The  species  on  which  observations  are  made  are 
numbered,  as  described  on  page  317.  The  note-book 
is  a  paged  blank  book,  which  is  made  of  ruled  quarto 
paper.  There  is  a  single  red  line  about  one  inch 
from  the  left  margin  of  each  page.  An  entire  page 
is  devoted  to  each  number  ;  this  greatly  facilitates  the 
finding  of  notes,  for  the  number  of  the  notes  and  that 
of  the  page  are  the  same.  The  space  at  the  left  of 
the  red  line  is  reserved  for  dates  and  subnumbers. 
The  first  line  of  the  notes  consist  only  of  the  name  of 
the  species ;  if  this  is  not  known  at  the  time  the  notes 
are  begun,  the  line  is  left  blank  and  a  descriptive  title 
for  temporary  use  is  written  on  the  second  line. 

As  already  stated,  one  page  of  the  note-book  is 
reserved  for  notes  on  each  species.  In  many  cases 
this  page  is  sufficient ;  when  it  is  found  insufficient, 
the  expression  ''  See  notes  "  is  written  at  the  end  of 
the  note  in  the  book,  and  all  further  notes  are  written 
on  loose  sheets.  These  are  kept  in  folded  sheets  of 
Manilla  paper,  which  are  stored  in  boxes  in  their 
numerical  sequence. 

The  use  of  a  note-book  in  this  system  is  a  sure 
protection  against  the  danger  of  using  the  same 
number  twice;  and  it  is  the  most  convenient  method 
of  keeping  the  notes  on  the  large  number  of  species 
respecting  which  extended  observations  are  not  made  ; 
while  the  supplementary  sheets  afford  all  the  advan- 
tages of  the  slip  system  when  extended  observations 
are  made. 

Indication  of  Sex. — In  many  insects  there  are 
marked   external   sexual   differences,  either   of   size, 


322 


INSECT    LIFE. 


form,  color,  or  of  shape  of  appendages.  In  others  it 
is  difficult  to  determine  the  sex  without  dissection. 
When  the  sex  of  a  specimen  is  known  it  should  be 
indicated  on  the  label.  This  is  commonly  done  by 
using  the  astronomical  sign  ,5  or  $  ,  the  former  indi- 
cating the  male  sex,  the  latter  the  female.  It  will  aid 
the  student  in  distinguishing  these  signs  to  remember 
that  $  represents  the  shield  and  spear  of  Mars,  and 
$  the  hand-glass  or  mirror  of  Venus.  In  the  case  of 
social  insects,  as  ants,  bees,  and  wasps,  the  workers 
are  indicated  by  ^  . 

On  taking  Notes.— After  many  years'  experi- 
ence I  am  sure  that  nothing  more  important  can  be 
said  to  the  young  student  regarding  the  taking  of 
notes  than  to  urge  him  to  take  them  at  the  time 
the  observation  is  made.  If  you  make  an  observa- 
tion in  the  field  do  not  wait  till  you  return  to  your 
study  to  record  it,  but  write  an  account  of  what  you 
have  seen  immediately,  and  do  this,  if  possible,  while 
observing  the  fact.  Almost  invariably  the  writing 
of  an  account  of  an  observation  will  suggest  queries, 
many  of  which  can  be  answered  at  the  time  the  ob- 
servation is  made,  but  not  after  the  observer  has 
returned  to  his  study. 

Even  in  those  cases  where  it  is  intended  to  make 
a  long  and  serious  study  of  a  subject,  every  phenom- 
enon observed  should  be  noted  as  soon  as  seen. 
Make  your  record  while  the  occurrence  is  fresh  in 
your  mind,  before  it  loses  the  charm  of  novelty  and 
becomes  a  commonplace.  Many  an  account  is  very 
incomplete  simply  because  the  writer  has  become  so 
familiar  with  certain  details  that  it  does  not  seem  to 
him  worth  while  to  record  them.     The  reader  will 


ON   LABELING   SPECIMENS   AND    TAKING    NOTES.  323 

please  bear  in  mind  that  I  have  reference  merely  to 
the  taking-  of  notes  for  the  observer's  personal  use  ; 
the  publication  of  conclusions  based  upon  hasty,  first 
impressions  is  not  advised.  Fill  your  note-book  with 
descriptions,  but  digest  them  carefully,  sifting  out 
for  publication  only  those  that  exhaustive  study  and 
repeated  observations  prove  to  be  valuable.  In 
making  observations  be  sure  y on  are  right  and  then  look 
again. 

Write  your  notes  in  as  good  style  as  you  can 
command.  It  does  not  pay  to  be  slovenly  here,  giv- 
ing no  attention  to  literary  form.  Remember,  how- 
ever, that  the  more  simple  and  direct  an  account  is, 
the  better  its  style. 

Descriptions  of  Insects. — One  of  the  best 
methods  of  training  the  powers  of  observation  is  by 
writing  descriptions  of  natural  objects  ;  for  the  prep- 
aration of  a  careful  description  will  lead  the  describer 
to  see  many  features  that  otherwise  would  not  be 
observed. 

The  nature  of  the  description  will  depend  greatly 
on  the  amount  of  experience  the  writer  of  it  has  had. 
The  young  beginner  of  Nature  study  will  be  expected 
to  mention  only  the  more  general  features  of  the 
object  described,  while  the  more  advanced  student 
should  be  able  to  point  out  its  distinctive  character- 
istics. Thus  in  describing  a  butterfly  the  beginner 
should  note,  among  other  things,  that  it  has  six  legs, 
four  wings,  a  pair  of  horns  (antennas),  two  large  eyes, 
a  coiled  tube  for  sucking,  and  that  the  wings  are 
clothed  with  a  dustlike  substance.  But  the  more  ad- 
vanced student  should  not  be  expected  to  state  any 
of  these  facts,  except  by  implication  in  the  statement 


324 


INSECT    LIFE. 


that  the  insect  described  is  a  butterfly,  for  the  includ- 
ing of  characteristics  that  are  true  of  all  butterflies 
would  be  unnecessary,  and  tend  to  obscure  the  im- 
portance of  the  more  distinctive  features  of  the  species 
described.  He  should  not  attempt  to  say  everything 
possible  about  the  insect,  but  should  try  to  discover 
and  state  in  what  respects  the  butterfly  described 
differs  from  other  butterflies ;  so  that  the  reader  of 
his  description  can  recognize  with  as  little  effort  as 
possible  the  particular  species  described. 

No  detailed  rules  for  describing  insects  can  be 
easily  given ;  the  peculiar  characteristics  will  be 
found  in  different  organs  in  different  cases.  The 
following  are  some  of  the  features  that  should  be 
studied  in  search  for  distinguishing  characteristics 
when  describing  adult  insects  : — 

1.  The  body  as  a  whole. — The  size  of  the  insect;  the  general 
color ;  the  color  of  the  more  prominent  markings  ;  the  relative  pro- 
portions of  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen  ;  the  clothing  of  the 
body,  as  scales,  hairs,  and  spines  ;  and  any  striking  peculiarity  of 
the  appendages  of  the  body. 

2.  The  head. — The  relative  size  of  the  head ;  the  details  of  the 
color  markings  of  the  head ;  the  size  and  shape  of  the  compound 
eyes  ;  variations  in  size  of  the  ocelli  in  different  parts  of  the  com- 
pound eyes ;  the  presence  or  absence  of  hairs  either  in  or  fringing 
the  compound  eyes  ;  the  number  and  position  of  the  simple  eyes ; 
the  insertion  of  the  antennas  ;  the  general  form  of  the  antennse  ;  the 
clothing  of  the  antennae  ;  the  relative  length  of  the  different  seg- 
ments of  the  antennae ;  the  form  of  the  labrum ;  the  shape  of  the 
mandibles  ;  the  structure  of  the  maxillse  and  maxillary  palpi ;  and 
the  structure  of  the  labium  and  labial  palpi. 

3.  The  thorax. — Peculiarities  in  the  size  and  form  of  the  thorax  ; 
the  details  of  the  markings  of  the  thorax  ;  the  structure  and  color- 
ing of  the  wings  ;  the  structure,  clothing,  and  armature  of  the  legs  ; 
and  the  position  of  the  thoracic  spiracles. 


ON   LABELING   SPECIMENS   AND    TAKING   NOTES.  325 

4.  The  abdomen. — The  size  and  general  form  of  the  abdomen  ; 
the  number  of  visible  abdominal  segments  ;  the  details  of  the  mark- 
ings of  the  abdomen  ;  the  number  and  structure  of  the  caudal  ap- 
pendages ;  and  the  number  and  position  of  the  abdominal  spiracles. 

In  preparing  a  description  of  a  larva  the  follow- 
ing features  should  be  observed : — 

The  size  and  general  form  of  the  body  ;  the  presence  or  absence 
of  legs  and  of  prolegs  ;  the  number  and  position  of  the  prolegs  when 
present ;  in  footless  larvae,  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  distinct 
head  ;  the  general  color  of  the  skin,  and  the  color  and  pattern  of  its 
markings  ;  the  nature  of  the  clothing  or  armature  of  the  body;  the 
colors  of  the  clothing  or  armature  ;  in  "  naked  "  larvae,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  tubercles  bearing  minute  hairs  or  more  conspicuous 
spines ;  in  hairy  larvae,  the  arrangement  of  the  hairs,  whether  scat- 
tered evenly  over  the  body  or  gathered  in  tufts ;  if  the  hairs  are 
tufted,  the  arrangement  of  the  tufts ;  the  number  and  position  of 
long  pencils  of  hairs  if  present ;  the  number  and  position  of  the 
spiracles. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  are  many  features 
characteristic  of  limited  groups  of  insects  which  will 
be  learned  by  the  student  as  he  advances  in  the  study 
of  such  groups. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  INSECTS. 


Fig.  287.- 


-A  home-made  breeding 
cage. 


In  the  study  of  the   life 
histories    of    insects    many 
facts  can  be  most  easily  and 
surely    determined    by    the 
study  of   specimens  in  con- 
finement.    It  is  rarely  prac- 
ticable to  watch  the  devel- 
opment of  an  individual  in- 
sect in  the    field,   but   with 
the  aid  of  a  breeding  cage 
this  is  easily  done.     The  use 
of  breeding  cages  also  ena- 
bles the  lover  of  Nature  study  to  keep  constantly  at 
hand  where  they  can  be  seen  daily,  or  even  hourly, 
examples  of  the  life  of  the  fields  and  ponds. 

In  collecting  insects  for  study  in  confinement  it 
is  necessary  to  note  carefully  the  conditions  under 
which  they  naturally  live,  and  then  to  imitate  these 
conditions  as  closely  as  possible.  If  the  insects  are 
feeding  on  a  plant,  the  kind  of  plant  and  the  part  in- 
fested should  be  observed,  so  that  the  specimens 
when  confined  may  be  given  the  proper  food.  If 
they  live  in  water,  determine  whether  they  will  re- 

326 


THE    BREEDING   OF    INSECTS. 


327 


quire  running  water  or  can  be  kept  in  an  ordinary 
aquarium.  And  if  they  are  predaceous,  the  nature 
of  their  food  should  be  ascertained,  if  possible,  al- 
though many  predaceous  insects  can  be  fed  on  raw 
meat. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the 
specimens  when  collecting  them.  Plant-eating  spe- 
cies can  be  carried  in  tight  boxes,  in  which  should  be 
placed  a  quantity  of  their  food.  Air  holes  in  the 
boxes  are  not  necessary.  It  is  more  important  that 
the  food  be  kept  from  wilting  than  that  there  should 
be  fresh  air.  If  aquatic  insects  are  to  be  collected, 
large  bottles  with  wide  mouths  or  glass  fruit-cans 
will  be  convenient  for  transporting  them.  If  the 
bottles  or  cans  be  only  partly  filled  with  water  they 
may  be  closed  tightly  for  the  time  occupied  by  an 
ordinary  field  trip. 

Breeding  Cages. — Several  styles  of  elaborate 
and  expensive  breeding  cages  are  in  use  by  profes- 
sional entomologists,  but  it  seems  hardly  worth  while 
to  describe  them  here,  for  equally  good  results  can 
be  obtained  with  simple  and  inexpensive  cages,  which 
can  be  made  by  any  handy  boy. 

A  good  home-made  cage  can  be  built  by  fitting  a 
pane  of  glass  into  one  side  of  an  empty  soap-box.  A 
board,  three  or  four  inches  wide,  should  be  fastened 
below  the  glass  so  as  to  admit  of  a  layer  of  soil  being 
placed  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cage,  and  the  glass 
can  be  made  to  slide,  so  as  to  serve  as  a  door  (Fig. 
287).  The  glass  should  fit  closely  when  shut,  to  pre- 
vent the  escape  of  insects. 

In  rearing  caterpillars  and  other  leaf-eating  larvae 
branches  of  the  food  plant  should  be  stuck  into  bot- 


328 


INSECT    LIFE. 


ties  or  cans  which  are  filled  with  sand  saturated  with 
water.  By  keeping  the  sand  wet  the  plants  can  be 
kept  fresh  longer  than  in  water  alone,  and  the  dan- 
ger of  the  larvas  being  drowned  is  avoided  by  the 
use  of  sand. 

Many  larvae  when  full-grown  enter  the  ground  to 
pass  the  pupa  state ;  on  this  account  a  layer  of  loose 
soil  should  be  kept  in  the  bottom  of  a  breeding  cage. 
This  soil  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  dry, 
neither  should  it  be  soaked  with  water.  If  the  soil 
is  too  dry  the  pupae  will  not  mature,  or  if  they  do  so 
the  wings  will  not  expand  fully  ;  if  the  soil  is  too 
damp  the  pupae  are  liable  to  be  drowned  or  to  be 
killed  by  mold. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  keep  pupae  over  winter, 
for  a  large  proportion  of  insects  pass  the  winter  in 
the  pupa  state.  Hibernating  pupse  may  be  left  in 
the  breeding  cages  or  removed  and  packed  in  moss 
in  small  boxes.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
moist  the  soil  in  the  breeding  cages,  or  the  moss  if 
that  be  used.  The  cages  or  boxes  containing  the 
pupae  should  be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,  or  in  an  un- 
heated  room,  or  in  a  large  box  placed  out  of  doors 
where  the  sun  can  not  strike  it.  Low  temperature 
is  not  so  much  to  be  feared  as  great  and  frequent 
changes  of  temperature. 

Hibernating  pupae  can  be  kept  in  a  warm  room  if 
care  be  taken  to  keep  them  moist,  but  under  such 
treatment  the  mature  insects  are  apt  to  emerge  in 
midwinter. 

An  excellent  breeding  cage  is  represented  by  Fig. 
288.  It  is  made  by  combining  a  flower-pot  and  a 
lantern-globe.     When  practicable,  the  food  plant  of 


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Plate  XVIII.— CATERPILLARS. 

FIGURE 

1.  A  cutworm,  Nodtia  clandestina. 

2.  The  Two-lined  Prominent,    Seriodonta  bilineata ;  it  feeds  on 

the  leaves  of  oak,  elm,  and  basswood. 

3.  The  same  as  Fig.  2.     A  green  variety. 

4.  The  Zebra  Caterpillar,  Maniestra  picta ;  it  feeds  on  cabbage 

and  other  garden  vegetables. 
5;     The  Apple-tree  Tent-caterpillar,  Clisiocampa  aniericana.     See 
page  168. 

6.  The  Tent-caterpillar-of-the-forest,    Clisiocampa   dissb-ia.      See 

page  172. 

7.  The    Well-marked    Tussock-moth,   A'otolophus   definita.      See 

Plate  VIII,  Fig.  10,  for  the  adult. 

8.  The    White-marked    Tussock-moth,    Notolophus    leticostig??ia. 

See  page  174  ;  also  Plate  VIII,  Fig.  9. 


Plate  XVIII. 


THE    BREEDING   OF    INSECTS. 

the  insects  to  be  bred 
is  planted  in  the  flow- 
er-pot ;  in  other  cases 
a  bottle  or  tin  can 
filled  with  wet  sand  is 
sunk  into  the  soil  in 
the  flower  -  pot,  and 
the  stems  of  the  plant 
are  stuck  into  this  wet 
sand.  The  top  of  the 
lantern-globe  is  cov- 
ered with  Swiss  mus- 
lin. These  breeding 
cages  are  inexpensive,  and  especially  so  when  the 
pots  and  globes  are  bought  in  considerable  quanti- 
ties. Fig.  290  represents  a 
modification  of  this  style  of 


Fig.  288. 


Fig.  285. 


breeding 


cage  that  is  used 


by  the  writer.  It  differs 
only  in  that  large  glass  cyl- 
inders take  the  place  of  the 
lantern-globes.  These  cylin- 
ders were  made  especially 
for  us  by  a  manufacturer  of 
glass,  and  cost  from  six  dol- 
lars to  eight  dollars  per  doz- 
en, according  to  size,  when 
made  in  lots  of  fifty. 

When  the  transforma- 
tions of  small  insects  or  of  a 
small  number  of  larger  ones 
are  to  be  studied,  a  conven- 
ient cage   can  be  made  by 


Fig.  290. 


330 


INSECT   LIFE. 


combining  a  large  lamp-chimney  with  a  small  flower- 
pot (Fig.  289). 

Aquaria. — For  the  breeding  of  aquatic  insects 
aquaria  are  needed.  As  the  ordinary  rectangular 
aquaria  are  expensive  and  are  liable  to  leak,  we  use 
glass  vessels  instead. 

Small  aquaria  can  be  made  of  jelly-tumblers,  glass 
finger-bowls,  and  glass  fruit-cans,  and  larger  aquaria, 

of  the  form  shown  in  Fig. 
291,  can  be  obtained  of  some 
dealers.  A  good  substitute 
for  these  is  what  is  known 
as  a  battery-jar.  There  are 
several  sizes  of  these,  which 
can  be  obtained  of  most  deal- 
ers in  scientific  apparatus. 

To  prepare  an  aquarium, 
place  in  the   jar   a   layer  of 
sand  ;    plant     some      water 
plants  in  this  sand,  cover  the 
sand  with  a  layer  of  gravel 
or  small  stones,  and  then  add 
the  required  amount  of  wa- 
ter carefully  so  as  not  to  dis- 
turb  the  plants  or  to  roil  the   water  unduly.     The 
growing  plants  will  keep  the  water  in  good  condi- 
tion for  aquatic  animal  life,  and  render  changing  of 
the  water  unnecessary,  if  the  animals  in  it  live  natu- 
rally in    quiet   water.     Among   the   more   available 
plants  for  use  in  aquaria  are  the  following  : — 
Water  weed,  Elodea  canadejisis, 
Bladderwort,  Utriailaria  (several  species). 
Water-starwort,  Callitriche  (several  species). 


Fig.  291. 


THE    BREEDING   OF   INSECTS. 


331 


Fig.  292. — Duckweed. 


Watercress,  Nasturtium  officinale. 
Stoneworts,  Chara  and  Nitella  (several  species  of 
each). 

Frog-spittle  or  water-silk,  Spirogira. 
A  small  quantity  of  duckweed,  Lemna  (Fig.  292), 
placed  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  adds   to   the 
beauty  of  an  aquarium. 
When  it  is  necessary 
to  add  water  to  an  aqua- 
rium on  account  of  loss 
by  evaporation,  rain  wa- 
ter  should    be   used  to 
prevent    an   undue    ac- 
cumulation of  the  mineral  matter  held  in  solution  in 
other  water. 

The  Constant-level  Siphon. — Certain  insects 
that  live  in  rapidly  flowing  streams  require  a  con- 
stant change  of  water.  Some  of  these  are  extremely 
difficult  to  breed  in  confinement,  but  others  can  be 
kept  alive  easily  if  placed  in  an  aquarium 
which  is  prepared  as  described  above, 
and  through  which  there  is  a  stream  of 
water  constantly  flowing. 

The  water  can  be  admitted  to  the 
aquarium  from  a  faucet,  and  the  surplus 
water  removed  by  a  device  which  may 
be  called  a  constant-level  siphon.     This 

Fig.  293.— Con-    .  .  .       t-. 

stant- level  IS  represented  in  operation  in  rig.  291, 

^^^  *^"'        and  separate  in  Fig.  293. 

The  siphon  can  be  made  of  small  lead  pipe.  It 
differs  from  an  ordinary  siphon  in  being  bent  up  at 
the  outer  end  (the  last  bend  shown  in  the  figure  is 


332  INSECT    LIFE. 

not  essential ;  it  is  the  one  preceding  that  which  is 
referred  to  here)  and  in   having  the  inner  arm  (the 


Fig.  294. — Section  of  a  root  cage. 


one  within  the  aquarium)  longer  than  the  outer  arm. 
These  two  peculiarities  prevent  the  emptying  of  the 


THE  BREEDING  OF  INSECTS. 


333 


siphon,  as  air  can  not  enter  at  either  end.  If  the 
bore  of  the  siphon  is  considerably  larger  than  the 
stream  of  water  flowing  into  the  aquarium,  the  water 
in  the  aquarium  will  be  kept  at  a  constant  level, 
which  will  be  that  of  the  outer  end  of  the  siphon. 

To  prevent  the  escape  of  the  insects  through  the 
siphon,  a  cylinder  of  fine  wire  gauze,  closed  at  each 
end  with  a  disk  of  cork,  is  fitted  over  the  inner  end 
of  the  siphon  (Fig.  293). 

The  Root  Cage. — For  the  study  of  insects  that 
infest  the  roots  of  plants,  the  writer  has  devised  a 
special  form  of  breeding  cage  known  as  the  root 
cage.      In  its  simplest  form  this  cage  consists  of  a 


Fig.  295. — A  root  cage. 


frame  holding  two  plates  of  glass  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion and  only  a  short  distance  apart.  The  space  be- 
tween the  plates  of  glass  is  filled  with  soil  in  which 


i34 


INSECT    LIFE. 


seeds  are  planted  or  small  plants  set.  The  width  of 
the  space  between  the  plates  of  glass  depends  on  the 
width  of  two  strips  of  wood  placed  between  them, 

one  at  each  end,  and  should 
be  only  wide  enough  to  allow 
the  insects  under  observation 
to  move  freely  through  the 
soil.  If  it  is  too  wide  the  in- 
sects will  be  able  to  conceal 
themselves.  Immediately 

outside  of  each  glass  there  is 
a  piece  of  blackened  zinc, 
which  slips  into  grooves  in 
the  ends  of  the  cage,  and 
which  can  be  easily  removed 
when  it  is  desired  to  observe 
the  insects  in  the  soil.  Fig. 
294  represents  a  small  section 
of  such  a  cage  with  the  zinc 
removed. 

In  a  more  expensive  form 
of  the  cage,  which  is  used  in 
the  Insectary  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity (Fig.  295),  there  is 
only  one  plate  of  glass  next 
to  the  soil,  the  place  of  the 
other  plate  of  glass  being  oc- 
cupied by  a  porous  tile,  be- 
tween which  and  an  outer 
plate  of  glass  is  packed  a  lay- 
er of  moss.  By  wetting  the  moss  sufficient  moisture 
passes  through  the  porous  tile  to  keep  the  soil  in 
good  condition  for  the  growth  of  the  plants  in  the 


Fig.  296. 


-A  sectional  view  of  a 
root  cage. 


THE  BREEDING  OF  INSECTS. 


335 


soil  without  unduly  wetting  the  soil.  A  cross  sec- 
tion of  this  cage  is  represented  by  Fig.  296  ;  the  parts 
are  as  follows : — a,  plate  of  glass  forming  the  back 
of  the  cage  ;  b,  space  filled  with  moss ;  c,  porous  tile  ; 
d,  thin  space  filled  with  soil  in  which  seed  is  sown 
and  the  insects  to  be  watched  are  placed  ;  e,  plate  of 
glass  forming  the  front  of  the  cage  ;  /,  a  sheet  of 
zinc  for  darkening  the  cage — this  is  removed  when 
observations  are  to  be  made ;  g  g,  sections  of  the 
wooden  frame  of  the  cage. 

FIREFLIES.* 

As  o'er  the  face  of  Evening  fair 

A  shade  of  twilight  came, 
Lost  sunbeams,  tangled  in  her  hair. 

Fell  into  drops  of  flame. 

Charles  Henry  Liiders. 

*  From  The  Dead  Nymph  and  other  Poems,  by  permission  of  Charles 

Scribner's  Sons. 


23 


CHAPTER    V. 

MISCELLANEOUS    LISTS. 

I.  BOOKS   ON   INSECTS. 

The  literature  of  entomology  is  very  extensive. 
Hundreds  of  books  on  insects  have  been  printed,  and 
more  than  twent3^-five  journals  devoted  exclusively 
to  this  subject  are  now  published.  In  addition  to 
this,  most  of  the  zoological  journals  contain  articles 
on  insects. 

Nevertheless  there  is  still  a  lack  of  the  kind  of 
books  usually  sought  for  by  beginners  in  this  study. 
There  are  a  few  good  general  text-books  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  a  larger  number  of  excellent  popular  works 
on  the  habits  of  insects,  but  there  does  not  exist  to- 
day a  fairly  complete  treatise  on  the  American  spe- 
cies of  any  order  of  insects.  The  fact  is,  the  science 
of  entomology  is  still  in  its  infancy,  and  a  great  field 
is  open  for  the  earnest  worker. 

In  the  following  list  there  are  enumerated  those 
works  that  are  most  useful  to  beginning  students. 
More  advanced  students  should  consult  The  Zoolog- 
ical Record  in  order  to  ascertain  the  titles  and  places 
of  publication  of  more  special  treatises.  * 

*  The  Zoological  Record  is  published  annually  by  the  Zoological 
Society  of  London.     Each  volume  gives  a  complete  list  of  the  works  and 

336 


MISCELLANEOUS   LISTS. 


337 


GENERAL    TEXT-BOOKS. 

CoMSTOCK,  J.  H.  and  A.  B.— A  Manual  for  the 
Study  of  Insects.  Comstock  Publishing  Company, 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  1895.  Price,  $3.75  net;  postage,  34 
cents. 

This  work  contains  a  series  of  analytical  tables  by  means  of 
which  the  family  to  which  any  North  American  insect  belongs  can 
be  determined.  Under  the  head  of  each  family  the  characteristics 
of  the  family,  both  as  regards  structure  and  habits,  are  given,  and 
the  more  common  species  are  described.     It  is  profusely  illustrated. 

Hyatt,  Alpheus,  and  Arms,  J.  M.— Guides  for 
Science  Teaching.  No.  III.  Insecta.  D.  C.  Heath 
&  Co.,  Boston,  1890.     Price,  $1.25. 

A  very  useful  work  for  teachers. 

Packard,  A.  S.— Guide  to  the  Study  of  Insects. 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York.  Price,  $5.  (First 
edition,  Salem,  1869.) 

Packard,  A.  S. — Entomology  for  Beginners. 
Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1888.     Price,  $1.40. 

The  Cambridge  Natural  History,  Vol.  V. — 
Peripatus,  by  A.  Sedgwick ;  Myriapods,  by  F.  G. 
Sinclair ;  Insects,  Part  I,  by  David  Sharp.  Mac- 
millan  &  Co.,  London  and  New  York,  1895.     Price, 


This,  in  many  respects,  is  the  best  text-book  on  entomology  yet 
published.  The  beginning  student  who  wishes  to  study  North 
American  insects  will  find  Comstock's  Manual  better  suited  to  his 
needs,  but  this  volume  of  The  Cambridge  Natural  History  should 


publications  relating  to  zoology  in  all  its  branches  that  have  appeared 
during  the  year  preceding  the  date  of  the  volume.  The  first  volunae  was 
for  the  year  1864. 


338  INSECT   LIFE. 

be  in  the  library  of  every  advanced  student  of  entomology.  Part  II 
of  this  work,  which  will  treat  of  the  Hemiptera,  Lepidoptera,  Dip- 
tera,  and  Coleoptera,  has  not  yet  (1896)  appeared.  It  is  to  consti- 
tute Vol.  VI  of  the  series. 

The  Standard  Natural  History.— The  title 
of  this  work  has  been  changed  to  The  Riverside 
Natural  History. 

The  Riverside  Natural  History.-— Edited  by 
John  Sterling  Kingsley.  Six  volumes,  royal  8vo. 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston  and  New  York. 
Price,  $30,  $36,  or  $42,  depending  on  the  binding. 

Vol.  II  of  this  work  treats  of  the  Crustacea  and  insects.  Unfor- 
tunately, it  can  not  be  purchased  separately,  and  the  entire  work  is 
too  expensive  for  most  students.  It  is,  however,  an  excellent  work 
of  reference  for  a  school  library. 

Harris,  T.  W. — Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation. 
(Flint  edition.)  Orange  Judd  Company,  Ne\y  York. 
Price,  plain  plates,  $4;  colored  plates,  $6.50. 

Although  this  is  an  old  work  and  consequently  somewhat  out  of 
date  as  regards  classification,  it  is  one  of  the  best  books  on  insects 
ever  written ;  it  doubtless  has  done  more  to  stimulate  an  interest  in 
the  study  of  insects  than  any  other  American  work.  It  is  magnifi- 
cently illustrated. 

Smith,  John  B. — Economic  Entomology.  J.  B. 
Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1896.     Price,  $2.50. 

This  is  a  very  useful  text-book  intended  especially  for  students 
in  agricultural  colleges. 

Saunders,  William. — Insects  Injurious  to  Fruits. 
J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1883.     Price,  $2. 

This  is  a  very  useful  work.  The  insects  discussed  are  classified 
according  to  the  plants  they  infest. 


MISCELLANEOUS   LISTS. 


339 


Weed,  Clarence  M.— Insects  and  Insectides. 
Orange  Judd  Company,  New  York.  Revised  edi- 
tion, 1895.     Price,  $1.50. 

Riley,  C.  V. — Directions  for  Collecting  and  Pre- 
serving Insects.  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  1892.     Price,  25  cents. 

This  is  a  very  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  named.  It  also 
contains  a  much  larger  list  of  writings  on  insects  than  that  given 
here. 

MORE    SPECIAL    WORKS. 

SCUDDER,  S.  H. — Brief  Guide  to  the  Commoner 
Butterflies  of  the  Northern  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  1893.  Price, 
$1.25. 

French,  G.  H. — The  Butterflies  of  the  Eastern 
United  States.  J.  B.  Lippincott  &  Co.,  Philadelphia, 
1886.     Price,  $2. 

Le  Conte  and  Horn. — Classification  of  the  Cole- 
optera  of  North  America.  Secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Entomological  Society,  Philadelphia.  Price,  $2.50. 

Williston,  S.  W. — Manual  of  North  American 
JDiptera.  Second  edition,  1896.  James  T.  Hatha- 
way, New  Haven,  Conn.     Price,  $2.25. 

Cresson,  E.  T. — Synopsis  of  the  Families  and 
Genera  of  the  Hymenoptera  of  America  North  of 
Mexico.  Secretary  of  the  American  Entomological 
Society,  Philadelphia.     Price,  $3. 

MuRRY,  Andrew. — Economic  Entomology:  Ap- 
tera.  Chapman  &  Hall,  193  Piccadilly,  London.  Out 
of  print.  To  be  obtained  of  dealers  in  second-hand 
books. 

This  work  is  especially  valuable  for  its  discussion  of  mites. 


340 


INSECT    LIFE. 


MiALL,  L.  C. — The  Natural  History  of  Aquatic 
Insects.  Macmillan  &  Co.,  London  and  New  York, 
1895.     Price,  $1.75. 

Banks,  Nathan.— A  Synopsis,  Catalogue,  and 
Bibliography  of  the  Neuropteroid  Insects  of  Tem- 
perate North  America.  (From  the  Transactions  of 
the  American  Entomological  Society,  Vol.  XIX.) 
Secretary  of  the  American  Entomological  Society, 
Philadelphia.     Price,  50  cents. 

Calvert,  Philip  P.— Catalogue  of  the  Odonata 
(Dragon-flies)  of  the  Vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  with 
an  introduction  to  the  study  of  this  group  of  insects. 
(From  the  Transactions  of  the  American  Entomolog- 
ical Society,  Vol.  XX.)  Secretary  of  the  American 
Entomological  Society,  Philadelphia.     Price,  $1. 

ON    THE    HABITS    OF    INSECTS. 

KiRBY  and  Spence. — An  Introduction  to  Ento- 
mology. Seventh  edition.  One  volume,  which  is  a 
reprint  of  Vols.  I  and  II  of  earlier  editions.  London, 
1856. 

This  work  is  out  of  print,  and  can  be  obtained  only  of  dealers  in 
second-hand  books.  But  it  is  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  larger 
public  libraries. 

There  are  many  other  excellent  works  on  the 
habits  of  insects,  but  they  can  not  be  enumerated  here 
for  lack  of  space. 

n.  DEALERS   IN   ENTOMOLOGICAL   SUPPLIES. 

Charles  C.  Riedy,  432  Montgomery  Street,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 


DEALERS    IN    OPTICAL    INSTRUMENTS.  341 

A.  Smith  &  Sons,  269  Pearl  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
John  Akhurst,  78  Ashland  Place,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
M.  i\bbott  Frazar,  93  Sudbury  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 
Entomological   Society   of   Ontario,    Victoria    Hall, 

London,  Ontario. 
Queen  &  Go.,    loio  Chestnut    Street,   Philadelphia, 

Pa. 
The  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Company,  515-543  N. 

St.  Paul  Street,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

III.  DEALERS  IN   OPTICAL   INSTRUMENTS. 

The  Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Company,  New  York 

city  and  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Eimer  &  Amend,  205-211   Third  Avenue,  New  York 

city. 
The     Franklin     Educational     Company,     Harcourt 

Street,  Boston,  Mass. 
J.  Grunow,  70  W.  Thirty-ninth  Street,  New  York. 
The  Gundlach  Optical  Company,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
William    Krafft,   411    W.    Fifty-ninth     Street,    New 

York. 
The  Mcintosh  Battery  and  Optical  Company,  521-531 

Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago,  111. 
Queen  &  Co.,  loio  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Richards  &  Co.,  30  E.  Eighteenth  Street,  New  York, 

108  Lake  Street,  Chicago,  111. 
Edward  Pennock,  3609  Woodland  Avenue,  Philadel- 
phia, Pa. 
Spencer  Lens  Company,  546  Main   Street,  Buffalo, 

N.  Y. 
Walmsley,  Fuller  &  Co.,   134-136  Wabash  Avenue, 

Chicago,  111. 


342 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  Tenth  and  Chestnut 
Streets,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

G.  S.  Woolman,  ii6  Fulton  Street,  New  York. 

J.  Zentmayer,  209  S.  Eleventh  Street,  Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

Charles  C.  Riedj,  432  Montgomery  Street,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 


\|':^^:.  .■■:-. J 

i- 

INDEX. 


Abdomen,  19. 
Acrididas,  72. 
Adult,  40. 

Agalena  nsevia,  224. 
Agamic,  177. 
Aglais  milberti,  252. 
Alder-blight,  163. 
Ambush-bug,  274. 
American  tortoise-shell,  252. 
Andrena,  269. 
Andriconia,  247. 
Angle-wings,  250. 
Anisota  oak- worms,  199. 
Anosia  plexippus,  249. 
-Antennas,  12. 
Ant-lions,  77. 
Ant-nest,  27S. 
Ants,  85,  178,  275. 
Aphididae,  163. 
Aphids,  75,  163,  175. 
Aphis-lions,  77,  78,  178,  179. 
Apple-tree  tent-caterpillar,  168. 
Aquaria,  330. 
Arachnida,  53,  55. 
Arctiidse,  239. 
Arthropoda,  52. 
Automeris  io,  189. 


Back-swimmers,  123,  128. 
Bag-worm,  204. 
Ballooning  spiders,  226. 
Basilarchia  archippus,  249. 
Basilona  imperialis,  197. 
Bees,  85,  254. 
Beetles,  41,  85. 
Belostoma,  130. 
Bent-necked  vials,  313. 
Bird-lice,  69. 
Bittacus,  79. 
Black-flies,  156. 
Black  swallow-tail,  243. 
Blank  forms  for  labels,  319. 
Blattidse,  71. 
Blepharoceridae,  159. 
Blister-beetles,  273. 
Block  system  of  arranging  collec- 
tions, 311. 
Blues,  247. 
Book-lice,  68. 
Books  on  insects,  336. 
Boreus,  79. 
Breathing  holes,  19. 
Breeding  cages,  327. 
Breeding  of  insects,  326. 
Bristletails,  63. 


343 


344 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Broad-shouldered       water-striders, 

109. 
Brownie-bugs,  219. 
Bugs,  75. 
Bumblebees,  256. 
Butterflies,  So,  82,  239. 

Caddice-flies,  79,  151. 
Caddice-worms,  79,  148,  151. 
Callosamia  promethea,  193. 
Calocalpa  undulata,  200. 
Cases,  306. 
Caterpillars,  239. 
Cattle-tick,  57. 
Ceanothus  silkworm,  196. 
Cecidomyiidae,  162. 
Cecropia-moth,  195. 
Cells  of  the  wings,  17. 
Centipede,  57. 
Cephalothorax,  55. 
Cerambycidge,  215. 
Chauliodes,  156. 
Chauliognathus,  273. 
Chrysopidae,  179. 
Cicada-killer,  270. 
Cicadas,  218. 
Cicada  septendecim,  218. 
Cicada  tibicen,  21S. 
Cigar-boxes,  306. 
Citheroniidae,  197. 
Citheronia  regalis,  199. 
Clematis,  30. 
Clifif-dwellers,  267. 
Clips  for  slides,  314. 
Clisiocampa  americana,  172. 
Clisiocampa  californica,  172. 
Clisiocampa  constricta,  172. 
Clisiocampa  disstria,  172. 
Cobweb-weavers,  227. 
Coccidse,  277. 
Coccinellidae,  180. 


Cockroaches,  70,  71. 
Cocoon,  40. 
Codlin-moth,  180. 
Coleoptera,  41,  43,  85. 
Collecting  apparatus,  284. 
Collecting  boxes,  287. 
Collecting  butterflies,  45. 
Collecting  moths,  50. 
College  insect  case,  310. 
Colorado  potato-beetle,  44. 
Complete  metamorphosis,  35,  38. 
Compound  eyes,  12. 
Compton-tortoise,  253. 
Conotrachelus  nenuphar,  184. 
Coppers,  246. 
Corisidae,  140. 
Corrodentia,  68. 
Coiydalis,  78. 
Corydalis  cornuta,  155. 
Cosmopolitan  butterfly,  251. 
Coxa,  15, 
Crabs,  54. 
Crab-spiders,  230. 
Crayfishes,  53. 
Crescent-spots,  249. 
Crickets,  70,  74,  233,  237. 
Crustacea,  53. 
Culicidae,  136. 
Curculionidas,  184. 
Curculios,  184. 
Cyanide  bottle,  286. 
Cyclops,  54. 
Cycnia  egle,  241. 
Cyllene  robinias,  273. 
Cynipidae,  212,  214. 
Cypris,  54. 


Damsel-flies,  65,  89,  93, 
Daphnia,  54. 
Darning-needles,  89. 
Datana  ministra,  173. 


140. 


INDEX. 


345 


Dealers  in  entomological  supplies, 

340. 
Dealers  in  optical  instruments,  341. 
Descriptions  of  insects,  323. 
Digger-wasp,  86,  260. 
Diptera,  83. 
Dobson,  77,  153. 
Dog-day-harvest-fly,  218. 
Dog-fleas,  84. 
Dolomedes,  229. 
Dragon-flies,  65,  89,  93. 
Drosophila,  185, 
Dytiscidse,  116. 

Ears,  19. 
Earwigs,  69. 
Elytra,  43. 

Engraver-beetles,  216. 
Ensign-fly,  86. 
Epargyreus  tityrus,  202. 
Ephemerida,  64. 
Estigmene  acraea,  240. 
Eugonia  j-album,  253. 
Eumenes  fraternus,  259. 
Eumenidae,  258. 
Euplexoptera,  69. 
Eurypelma  hentzii,  231. 
Euvanessa  antiopa,  252. 
Eyes,  12. 
Eyprepia,  241. 

Fall  web-worm,  200. 

Femur,  15. 

Fireflies,  335. 

Fish-moths,  63. 

Fleas,  84. 

Flies,  83. 

Folded  papers  for  butterflies,  287, 

Forceps,  299. 

Forest  life,  186. 

Four-footed  butterflies,  247. 


Fritillaries,  250. 
Funnel-web  weavers,  222. 


Galgulidge,  160. 

Gall-gnats,  162.  , 

Gall-insects,  210. 

Galls,  210. 

Gelechia  gallaesolidaginis,  274. 

Giant  silkworm,  187. 

Giant  water-bugs,  130. 

Gills,  54. 

Goldenrod,  272. 

Goldenrod-galls,  274. 

Gossamer-winged    butterflies,    164, 

246. 
Grandfather  graybeards,  56,  232. 
Grasshoppers,  70,  233. 
Grass-spider,  224. 
Grouse-locusts,  164. 
Gryllidse,  74. 
Gyrinidse,  114. 

Hair-streaks,  247. 

Halictus,  267. 

Harlequin       milkweed-caterpillar, 

241. 
Harvestmen,  56,  232. 
Head,  12. 
Hemiptera,  75. 
Heteroptera,  76. 
Hexapoda,  53,  58. 
Hollyhock,  257. 
Homoptera,  77. 
Honey-bee,  255. 
Honey-dew,  177. 
Horned  corydalis,  153. 
Hydrobatidai,  109. 
Hymenopters,  85. 
Hyphantria  cunea,  200. 
Hypopharynx,  14. 


34^ 


INSECT    LIFE. 


Ichneumon-fly,  86. 

Ichneumonidse,  217. 

Ichthyura,  201. 

Imago,  40. 

Imperial-moth,  197. 

Incomplete  metamorphosis,  35,  37. 

Inflating  larvoe,  301. 

Insects,  58. 

lo-moth,  189. 

Iphiclides  ajax,  244. 

Iron  frame  for  mold  for  cases,  312. 

Isabella  tiger-moth,  240. 

Isoptera,  67. 

Jasoniades  glaucus,  243. 
Jumping  spiders,  22g. 

Katydids,  73,  239. 
Killing  bottles,  285. 

Labeling  specimens,  315. 

Labial  palpi,  14. 

Labium,  14. 

Labrum,  13. 

Lace-winged  flies,  179. 

Lady-bugs,  179,  180. 

Lampyridae,  273. 

Larva,  40, 

Lasiocampidse,  171. 

Leaf-eating  caterpillars,  172,  187. 

Leaf-cutter  bees,  265. 

Leaf-miners,  208. 

Leaf-rollers,  206. 

Lepidoptera,  80. 

Lice,  75,  76. 

Lights,  293. 

Lobsters,  53. 

Locust-borer,  273. 

Locustidoe,  72. 

Locusts,  72,  233,  236. 

Long-horned  beetles,  215. 


Long-horned  grasshoppers,  73. 
Luna-moth,  192. 
Lycaenidae,  164,  246. 
Lycosa,  229. 

Mallophaga,T69. 
Mandibles,  13. 
Mantidae,  71. 
Maxillae,  13. 
Maxillary  palpi,  14. 
May-flies,  64,  99,  loi,  148. 
Meadow-browns,  253. 
Meadow  grasshoppers,  73. 
Measuring- worms,  174. 
Mecoptera,  78. 
Megachile,  265. 
Megachile  acuta,  265. 
Meloidae,  273. 
Membracidae,  220,  277. 
Mesothorax,  18. 
Metathorax,  18. 
Microscopic  objects,  300. 
Millers,  80. 
Millipede,  57. 
Miners  of  the  plains,  268. 
Mining-bees,  269. 
Mining  digger-wasps,  269. 
Misumena  vatia,  230. 
Mites,  56. 

Mocha-stone  moth,  201. 
Mold,  314. 
Molting,  36. 
Monarch,  249. 
Monobia  quadridens,  265. 
Monohamus  confusor,  215. 
Mossy-rose-gall,  212. 
Mosquitoes,  132. 
Moths,  80,  81,  239,  242. 
Mourning-cloak,  252. 
Mouth-parts,  13. 
Muscidae,  185. 


INDEX. 


347 


Museum  pests,  314. 
Myriapoda,  53,  57. 

Nepa,  128. 

Nest-building  caterpillars,  200. 

Net-building  caddice-worms,  151. 

Net-winged  midges,  158. 

Nets,  285. 

Neuroptera,  77. 

Nodus,  97. 

Note-books,  320. 

Notolophus  leucostigma,  174. 

Notonectidae,  128. 

Nymphalidas,  247. 

Nymphs,  35. 

Oak-apples,  210. 
Oberea  bimaculata,  215. 
Ocelli,  13. 
Odonata,  65, 

GEdemasia  concinna,  173. 
Orb-weavers,  224. 
Orchard  life,  166. 
Orthoptera,  70. 
Oven,  302. 
Ovipositor,  20. 

Painted  beauty,  251. 
Palpus,  14. 
Panorpa,  78. 
Papilio  polyxenes,  243. 
Parasita,  76. 
Periodical  cicada,  218. 
Phasmidae,  71. 
Phymata  wolffii,  274. 
Phymatidae,  274. 
Physopoda,  74. 
Pieridse,  245. 
Pieris  rapae,  245. 
Pine-cone  willow-gall,  160. 
Pinning  forceps,  299. 


Pins,  295. 
Pita-wood,  310. 
Plaginotus  speciosus,  215. 
Plant-lice,  163,  175. 
Plecoptera,  66,  147. 
Pliers,  299. 
Plum-curculio,  182. 
Poison  ivy,  29. 
Polistes,  259. 
Polyphemus-moth,  190. 
Polystoechotes  punctatus,  78. 
Pomace-flies,  184. 
Praying  mantes,  71. 
Predaceous  diving-beetles,  116. 
Preservation  of  specimens,  294. 
Preservative  fluids,  300. 
Prionus  laticollis,  215. 
Promethea-moth,  193. 
Prothorax,  18. 
Psephenus,  153. 
Psocids,  68. 
Psychidae,  204. 
Pupa,  40. 
Puparium,  185. 
Pyrrharctia  Isabella,  240. 

Ranatra,  128. 
Red  admii-al,  251. 
Red-humped  apple-worm,  173. 
Regal-moth,  199. 
Relaxing  insects,  305. 
Rhagium  lineatum,  215. 
Roadside  life,  221. 
Root  cage,  333. 
Royal-moths,  197. 
Running  spiders,  228. 

Saldidae,  160. 

Salt-marsh  caterpillar,  240. 
Samia  californica,  196. 
Samia  cecropla,  195. 


348 


INSECT   LIFE. 


Saturniidae,  i8g. 

Scales,  4g. 

Scallop-shell  moth,  200. 

Scolytidse,  216. 

Scorpion-flies,  78. 

Scorpions,  56. 

Sex,  indication  of,  321. 

Sheep-tick,  57. 

Shore-bugs,  159. 

Short-horned  grasshoppers,  72. 

Shrimps,  53. 

Sialidae,  155. 

Sialis,  156. 

Silver-spotted  skipper,  202. 

Simple  eyes,  12. 

Simuliidse,  158. 

Siphon,  constant-level,  331. 

Siphonaptera,  84. 

Siricidae,  217. 

Skippers,  80,  81. 

Smaller    leaf  -  eating    caterpillars, 

205. 

Social  wasps,  259. 

Soldier-beetles,  273. 

Solidago,  272. 

Solitary  wasps,  258. 

Songs  of  insects,  235. 

Sow-bug,  54. 

Spiders,  222. 

Spiracles,  19. 

Spreading  board,  304. 

Spreading  insects,  303. 

Spreading  pin,  304. 

Springtails,  63. 

Stone-flies,  66,  102,  103,  146. 

Stink-bugs,  76. 

Subimago,  100. 

Sugaring,  292. 

Sumach,  261, 

Supplies  for  pupils,  24. 

Supplies  for  the  school,  25. 


Surface  film  of  water,  104. 
Swallow-tail  butterflies,  242. 

Tarantulas,  230. 
Tarsal  claws,  16. 
Tarsus,  16. 

Telea  polyphemus,  190. 
Termites,  67. 
Thorax,  17. 

Thread-waisted  wasps,  261. 
Thrips,  74. 
Thysanura,  63. 
Tibia,  16. 
Tiger-beetles,  270. 
Tiger-moths,  239. 
Tiger  swallow-tail,  243. 
Toad-shaped  bugs,  160. 
Tortricids,  182,  207. 
Tortricina,  182,  207. 
Tracheal  gills,  54,  141. 
Trap-door  spiders,  230. 
Tree-hoppers,  219. 
Trichoptera,  79,  151. 
Trochanter,  15. 
Tropsea  luna,  192. 
True  grasshoppers,  73. 
Trypeta  solidaginis,  274. 
Trypoxylon  frigidum,  262. 

Vanessa  atalanta,  251. 
Vanessa  cardui,  251. 
Vanessa  huntera,  251. 
Veins  of  the  wings,  16. 
Veliidae,  109. 
Vespa,  260. 
Vespidae,  260. 
Viceroy,  249. 
Virginia  creeper,  29. 

Wanderer,  163. 
Walking  sticks,  72. 


INDEX. 


349 


Wasps,  85,  258. 
Water-boatmen,  136. 
Water-pennies,  153. 
Water-scavenger  beetles,  120. 
Water-scorpions,  128. 
Water-striders,  106,  109. 
Water-tigers,  119. 
Weevils,  184. 
White-ants,  67. 

White-marked  tussock-moth,  174. 
Whites,  245. 


Whirligig-beetles,  ill. 
"  Wiggiers,"  131. 
Wrigglers,  131. 

Yellow-bear,  240. 

Yellow -necked    apple  -  tree  -  worm, 

173- 
Yellows,  245,  246. 

Zaitha,  130. 

Zebra  swallow-tail,  244. 


THE    END. 


Date  Due 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


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